Safety and immunogenicity of a delayed booster dose of the rVSVΔG-ZEBOV-GP vaccine for prevention of Ebola virus disease: a multicentre, open-label, phase 2 randomised controlled trial.

BACKGROUND: rVSVΔG-ZEBOV-GP is the first approved vaccine with clinical efficacy against Ebola virus disease. Although a seroprotective threshold has not been defined for those at occupational risk of exposure, the current vaccine strategy is to attain a sustained high level of antibody titres. The aim of this trial was to explore the effects of delayed boosting upon both the height and duration of antibody titres following primary immunisation. METHODS: In this open-label phase 2 randomised controlled trial, we compared antibody titres at month 36 in participants who had received a homologous booster dose at month 18 following primary immunisation with those who had received no booster. From Oct 25, 2016, to Jan 29, 2020, healthy adults aged 18 years or older deemed at occupational risk of exposure to Ebola virus due to laboratory work, clinical duties, or travel to an active endemic region were recruited from four hospital clinics in the USA and one hospital clinic in Canada and received primary vaccination with 2×107 plaque-forming unit per mL of VSVΔG-ZEBOV-GP. 18 months later, individuals who consented and were still eligible were randomly assigned 1:1 to receive either a homologous booster dose or no booster. Study visits for safety and serial blood collections for antibody titres were done on enrolled participants at months 0, 1, 3, 6, 12, 18, 19, 24, 30, and 36. Through July, 2021, a web-based application was used for randomisation, including assignments with schedules for each of the five sites using mixed permuted blocks. The trial was not masked to participants or site staff. The primary endpoint was a comparison of geometric mean titres (GMTs) of anti-Ebola virus glycoprotein IgG antibody at month 36 (ie, 18 months after randomisation) for all randomly assigned participants who completed the 36 months of follow-up (primary analysis cohort). Investigators were aware of antibody titres from baseline (enrolment) through month 18 but were masked to summary data by randomisation group after month 18. This study is registered with ClinicalTrials.gov (NCT02788227). FINDINGS: Of the 248 participants who enrolled and received their primary immunisation, 114 proceeded to the randomisation step at month 18. The two randomisation groups were balanced: 57 participants (24 [42%] of whom were female; median age was 42 years [IQR 35-50]) were randomly assigned to the booster group and 57 (24 [42%] of whom were female; median age was 42 years [IQR 36-51]) to the no-booster group. Of those randomly assigned, 92 participants (45 in the booster group and 47 in the no-booster group) completed 36 months of follow-up. At 18 months after primary immunisation, GMTs in the no-booster group increased from a baseline of 10 ELISA units (EU)/mL (95% CI 7-14) to 1451 EU/mL (1118-1882); GMTs in the booster group increased from 9 EU/mL (6-16) to 1769 EU/mL (1348-2321). At month 19, GMTs were 31 408 EU/mL (23 181-42 554) for the booster group and 1406 EU/mL (1078-1833) for the no-booster group; at month 36, GMTs were 10 146 EU/mL (7960-12 933) for the booster group and 1240 EU/mL (984-1563) for the no-booster group. Accordingly, the geometric mean ratio (GMR) of antibody titres had increased almost 21-fold more in the booster versus no-booster group at 1 month after booster administration (GMR 20·6; 95% CI 18·2-23·0; p<0·0001) and was still over 7-fold higher at month 36 (GMR 7·8; 95% CI 5·5-10·2; p<0·0001). Consistent with previous reports of this vaccine's side-effects, transient mono-articular or oligo-articular arthritis was diagnosed in 18 (9%) of 207 primary vaccination recipients; after randomisation, arthritis was diagnosed in one (2%) of 57 participants in the no-booster group. No new cases of arthritis developed after booster administration. Four serious adverse events occurred following randomisation: one (epistaxis) in the booster group and three (gastrointestinal haemorrhage, prostate cancer, and tachyarrhythmia) in the no-booster group. None of the serious adverse events was judged attributable to the booster vaccination assignment. INTERPRETATION: In addition to no new safety concerns and in marked contrast to earlier trials evaluating short-term boosting, delaying a rVSVΔG-ZEBOV-GP booster until month 18 resulted in an increase in GMT that remained several-fold above the no-booster group GMT for at least 18 months. These findings could have implications for defining the optimal timing of booster doses as pre-exposure prophylaxis in populations at ongoing risk for Ebola virus exposure. FUNDING: The Division of Intramural Research and the Division of Clinical Research of the National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases at the US National Institutes of Health, Canadian Immunization Research Network through the Public Health Agency of Canada, Canadian Institutes of Health Research, and the US Defense Threat Reduction Agency.

The alarmin IL-33 exacerbates pulmonary inflammation and immune dysfunction in SARS-CoV-2 infection.

Dysregulated host immune responses contribute to disease severity and worsened prognosis in COVID-19 infection and the underlying mechanisms are not fully understood. In this study, we observed that IL-33, a damage-associated molecular pattern molecule, is significantly increased in COVID-19 patients and in SARS-CoV-2-infected mice. Using IL-33-/- mice, we demonstrated that IL-33 deficiency resulted in significant decreases in bodyweight loss, tissue viral burdens, and lung pathology. These improved outcomes in IL-33-/- mice also correlated with a reduction in innate immune cell infiltrates, i.e., neutrophils, macrophages, natural killer cells, and activated T cells in inflamed lungs. Lung RNA-seq results revealed that IL-33 signaling enhances activation of inflammatory pathways, including interferon signaling, pathogen phagocytosis, macrophage activation, and cytokine/chemokine signals. Overall, these findings demonstrate that the alarmin IL-33 plays a pathogenic role in SARS-CoV-2 infection and provides new insights that will inform the development of effective therapeutic strategies for COVID-19.

Hydrogen Sulfide Ameliorates SARS-CoV-2-Associated Lung Endothelial Barrier Disruption.

Recent studies have confirmed that lung microvascular endothelial injury plays a critical role in the pathophysiology of COVID-19. Our group and others have demonstrated the beneficial effects of H2S in several pathological processes and provided a rationale for considering the therapeutic implications of H2S in COVID-19 therapy. Here, we evaluated the effect of the slow-releasing H2S donor, GYY4137, on the barrier function of a lung endothelial cell monolayer in vitro, after challenging the cells with plasma samples from COVID-19 patients or inactivated SARS-CoV-2 virus. We also assessed how the cytokine/chemokine profile of patients' plasma, endothelial barrier permeability, and disease severity correlated with each other. Alterations in barrier permeability after treatments with patient plasma, inactivated virus, and GYY4137 were monitored and assessed by electrical impedance measurements in real time. We present evidence that GYY4137 treatment reduced endothelial barrier permeability after plasma challenge and completely reversed the endothelial barrier disruption caused by inactivated SARS-CoV-2 virus. We also showed that disease severity correlated with the cytokine/chemokine profile of the plasma but not with barrier permeability changes in our assay. Overall, these data demonstrate that treatment with H2S-releasing compounds has the potential to ameliorate SARS-CoV-2-associated lung endothelial barrier disruption.

Texas professionals are employing a one health approach to protect the United States against biosecurity threats.

Texas is a geographically large state with large human and livestock populations, many farms, a long coastal region, and extreme fluctuations in weather. During the last 15 years, the state of Texas has frequently suffered disasters or catastrophes causing extensive morbidity and economic loss. These disasters often have complicated consequences requiring multi-faceted responses. Recently, an interdisciplinary network of professionals from multiple academic institutions has emerged to collaborate in protecting Texas and the USA using a One Health approach. These experts are training the next generation of scientists in biopreparedness; increasing understanding of pathogens that cause repetitive harm; developing new therapeutics and vaccines against them; and developing novel surveillance approaches so that emerging pathogens will be detected early and thwarted before they can cause disastrous human and economic losses. These academic One Health partnerships strengthen our ability to protect human and animal health against future catastrophes that may impact the diverse ecoregions of Texas and the world.

Vaccination Decreases the Infectious Viral Load of Delta Variant SARS-CoV-2 in Asymptomatic Patients.

The Delta variant of SARS-CoV-2 has caused many breakthrough infections in fully vaccinated individuals. While vaccine status did not generally impact the number of viral RNA genome copies in nasopharyngeal swabs of breakthrough patients, as measured by Ct values, it has been previously found to decrease the infectious viral load in symptomatic patients. We quantified the viral RNA, infectious virus, and anti-spike IgA in nasopharyngeal swabs collected from individuals asymptomatically infected with the Delta variant of SARS-CoV-2. Vaccination decreased the infectious viral load, but not the amount of viral RNA. Furthermore, vaccinees with asymptomatic infections had significantly higher levels of anti-spike IgA in their nasal secretions compared to unvaccinated individuals with asymptomatic infections. Thus, vaccination may decrease the transmission risk of Delta, and perhaps other variants, despite not affecting the amount of viral RNA measured in nasopharyngeal swabs.

Unraveling the Treatment Effect of Baricitinib on Clinical Progression and Resource Utilization in Hospitalized COVID-19 Patients: Secondary Analysis of the Adaptive COVID-19 Treatment Randomized Trial-2.

Background: The Adaptive COVID Treatment Trial-2 (ACTT-2) found that baricitinib in combination with remdesivir therapy (BCT) sped recovery in hospitalized coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) patients vs remdesivir monotherapy (RMT). We examined how BCT affected progression throughout hospitalization and utilization of intensive respiratory therapies. Methods: We characterized the clinical trajectories of 891 ACTT-2 participants requiring supplemental oxygen or higher levels of respiratory support at enrollment. We estimated the effect of BCT on cumulative incidence of clinical improvement and deterioration using competing risks models. We developed multistate models to estimate the effect of BCT on clinical improvement and deterioration and on utilization of respiratory therapies. Results: BCT resulted in more linear improvement and lower incidence of clinical deterioration compared with RMT (hazard ratio [HR], 0.74; 95% CI, 0.58 to 0.95). The benefit was pronounced among participants enrolled on high-flow oxygen or noninvasive positive-pressure ventilation. In this group, BCT sped clinical improvement (HR, 1.21; 95% CI, 0.99 to 1.51) while slowing clinical deterioration (HR, 0.71; 95% CI, 0.48 to 1.02), which reduced the expected days in ordinal score (OS) 6 per 100 patients by 74 days (95% CI, -8 to 154 days) and the expected days in OS 7 per 100 patients by 161 days (95% CI, 46 to 291 days) compared with RMT. BCT did not benefit participants who were mechanically ventilated at enrollment. Conclusions: Compared with RMT, BCT reduces the clinical burden and utilization of intensive respiratory therapies for patients requiring low-flow oxygen or noninvasive positive-pressure ventilation compared with RMT and may thereby improve care for this patient population.

Baricitinib versus dexamethasone for adults hospitalised with COVID-19 (ACTT-4): a randomised, double-blind, double placebo-controlled trial.

BACKGROUND: Baricitinib and dexamethasone have randomised trials supporting their use for the treatment of patients with COVID-19. We assessed the combination of baricitinib plus remdesivir versus dexamethasone plus remdesivir in preventing progression to mechanical ventilation or death in hospitalised patients with COVID-19. METHODS: In this randomised, double-blind, double placebo-controlled trial, patients were enrolled at 67 trial sites in the USA (60 sites), South Korea (two sites), Mexico (two sites), Singapore (two sites), and Japan (one site). Hospitalised adults (≥18 years) with COVID-19 who required supplemental oxygen administered by low-flow (≤15 L/min), high-flow (>15 L/min), or non-invasive mechanical ventilation modalities who met the study eligibility criteria (male or non-pregnant female adults ≥18 years old with laboratory-confirmed SARS-CoV-2 infection) were enrolled in the study. Patients were randomly assigned (1:1) to receive either baricitinib, remdesivir, and placebo, or dexamethasone, remdesivir, and placebo using a permuted block design. Randomisation was stratified by study site and baseline ordinal score at enrolment. All patients received remdesivir (≤10 days) and either baricitinib (or matching oral placebo) for a maximum of 14 days or dexamethasone (or matching intravenous placebo) for a maximum of 10 days. The primary outcome was the difference in mechanical ventilation-free survival by day 29 between the two treatment groups in the modified intention-to-treat population. Safety analyses were done in the as-treated population, comprising all participants who received one dose of the study drug. The trial is registered with ClinicalTrials.gov, NCT04640168. FINDINGS: Between Dec 1, 2020, and April 13, 2021, 1047 patients were assessed for eligibility. 1010 patients were enrolled and randomly assigned, 516 (51%) to baricitinib plus remdesivir plus placebo and 494 (49%) to dexamethasone plus remdesivir plus placebo. The mean age of the patients was 58·3 years (SD 14·0) and 590 (58%) of 1010 patients were male. 588 (58%) of 1010 patients were White, 188 (19%) were Black, 70 (7%) were Asian, and 18 (2%) were American Indian or Alaska Native. 347 (34%) of 1010 patients were Hispanic or Latino. Mechanical ventilation-free survival by day 29 was similar between the study groups (Kaplan-Meier estimates of 87·0% [95% CI 83·7 to 89·6] in the baricitinib plus remdesivir plus placebo group and 87·6% [84·2 to 90·3] in the dexamethasone plus remdesivir plus placebo group; risk difference 0·6 [95% CI -3·6 to 4·8]; p=0·91). The odds ratio for improved status in the dexamethasone plus remdesivir plus placebo group compared with the baricitinib plus remdesivir plus placebo group was 1·01 (95% CI 0·80 to 1·27). At least one adverse event occurred in 149 (30%) of 503 patients in the baricitinib plus remdesivir plus placebo group and 179 (37%) of 482 patients in the dexamethasone plus remdesivir plus placebo group (risk difference 7·5% [1·6 to 13·3]; p=0·014). 21 (4%) of 503 patients in the baricitinib plus remdesivir plus placebo group had at least one treatment-related adverse event versus 49 (10%) of 482 patients in the dexamethasone plus remdesivir plus placebo group (risk difference 6·0% [2·8 to 9·3]; p=0·00041). Severe or life-threatening grade 3 or 4 adverse events occurred in 143 (28%) of 503 patients in the baricitinib plus remdesivir plus placebo group and 174 (36%) of 482 patients in the dexamethasone plus remdesivir plus placebo group (risk difference 7·7% [1·8 to 13·4]; p=0·012). INTERPRETATION: In hospitalised patients with COVID-19 requiring supplemental oxygen by low-flow, high-flow, or non-invasive ventilation, baricitinib plus remdesivir and dexamethasone plus remdesivir resulted in similar mechanical ventilation-free survival by day 29, but dexamethasone was associated with significantly more adverse events, treatment-related adverse events, and severe or life-threatening adverse events. A more individually tailored choice of immunomodulation now appears possible, where side-effect profile, ease of administration, cost, and patient comorbidities can all be considered. FUNDING: National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases.

Does patient preference for online or telephone follow-up impact on response rates and data completeness following injury?

BACKGROUND: Routine collection of patient-reported outcomes is needed to better understand recovery, benchmark between trauma centers and systems, and monitor outcomes over time. A key component of follow-up methodology is the mode of administration of outcome measures with multiple options available. We aimed to quantify patient preference and compare the response rates and data completeness for telephone and online completion in trauma patients. METHODS: A registry-based cohort study of adult (16 years and older) patients registered to the Victorian State Trauma Registry and Victorian Orthopedic Trauma Outcomes Registry from April 2020 to December 2020 was undertaken. Survivors to discharge were contacted by telephone and offered the option of telephone or online completion of 6-month follow-up using the five-level EuroQol five-dimension (EQ-5D-5L) questionnaire and the 12-item World Health Organization Disability Assessment Schedule (WHODAS). The online and telephone groups were compared for differences in characteristics, follow-up rates, and data completeness. Multivariable logistic regression was used to identify predictors of choosing online completion. RESULTS: Of the 3,886 patients, 51% (n = 1,994) chose online follow-up, and the follow-up rates were lower for online (77%), compared with telephone (89%), follow-up. Younger age, higher socioeconomic status, and preferred language other than English were associated with higher adjusted odds of choosing online completion. Admission to intensive care was associated with lower adjusted odds of choosing online completion. Completion rate for the EQ-5D-5L utility score was 97% for both groups. A valid total 12-WHODAS score could be calculated for 63% of online respondents compared with 86% for the telephone group. CONCLUSION: More than half of trauma patients opted for online completion. Completion rates did differ depending on the questionnaire and telephone follow-up rates were higher. Nevertheless, given the wide diversity of the trauma population, the high rate of online uptake, and potential resource constraints, the study findings largely support the use of dual methods for follow-up. LEVEL OF EVIDENCE: Prognostic/Epidemiological, Level III.

Deconstructing the Treatment Effect of Remdesivir in the Adaptive Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19) Treatment Trial-1: Implications for Critical Care Resource Utilization.

BACKGROUND: The Adaptive Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19) Treatment Trial-1 (ACTT-1) found that remdesivir therapy hastened recovery in patients hospitalized with COVID-19, but the pathway for this improvement was not explored. We investigated how the dynamics of clinical progression changed along 4 pathways: recovery, improvement in respiratory therapy requirement, deterioration in respiratory therapy requirement, and death. METHODS: We analyzed trajectories of daily ordinal severity scores reflecting oxygen requirements of 1051 patients hospitalized with COVID-19 who participated in ACTT-1. We developed competing risks models that estimate the effect of remdesivir therapy on cumulative incidence of clinical improvement and deterioration, and multistate models that utilize the entirety of each patient's clinical course to characterize the effect of remdesivir on progression along the 4 pathways above. RESULTS: Based on a competing risks analysis, remdesivir reduced clinical deterioration (hazard ratio [HR], 0.73; 95% confidence interval [CI]: .59-.91) and increased clinical improvement (HR, 1.22; 95% CI: 1.08, 1.39) relative to baseline. Our multistate models indicate that remdesivir inhibits worsening to ordinal scores of greater clinical severity among patients on room air or low-flow oxygen (HR, 0.74; 95% CI: .57-.94) and among patients receiving mechanical ventilation or high-flow oxygen/noninvasive positive-pressure ventilation (HR, 0.73; 95% CI: .53-1.00) at baseline. We also find that remdesivir reduces expected intensive care respiratory therapy utilization among patients not mechanically ventilated at baseline. CONCLUSIONS: Remdesivir speeds time to recovery by preventing worsening to clinical states that would extend the course of hospitalization and increase intensive respiratory support, thereby reducing the overall demand for hospital care.

Epidemiology of pregnant patients with major trauma in Victoria.

OBJECTIVE: Trauma is one of the most common contributors to maternal and foetal morbidity and mortality. The aim of the present study was to describe the characteristics and outcomes of major trauma in pregnant patients using a population-based registry. METHODS: Registry-based study using data from the Victorian State Trauma Registry (VSTR), a population-based database of all hospitalised major trauma (death due to injury, Injury Severity Score [ISS] ≥12, admission to an intensive care unit [ICU] for more than 24 h and requiring mechanical ventilation for at least part of their ICU stay or urgent surgery) in Victoria, Australia, from 1 July 2007 to 30 June 2019. Pregnant patients with major trauma were identified on the VSTR. We summarised patient data using descriptive statistics. RESULTS: Over the 12-year study period, there were 63 pregnant major trauma patients. Fifty-two (82.5%) patients sustained injuries resulting from road transport collisions. The maternal survival rate was 98.4% and the foetal survival rate was 88.9%. Thoracic injury was the most common injury (25/63), followed by abdominal injury (23/63). Eighty-six percent of the third trimester patients (19/22) were transported directly to a major trauma service with capacity for definitive care of the pregnancy. CONCLUSION: The present study demonstrated road transport injury was the most common mechanism of injury and both maternal survival rates and foetal survival rates were high. This information is essential for trauma care system planning and public health initiatives to improve the clinical management and outcomes of pregnant women with major trauma.

Association between anticoagulants and mortality and functional outcomes in older patients with major trauma.

BACKGROUND: The number of trauma patients taking anticoagulants and antiplatelet agents is increasing as society ages. However, there have been limited and inconsistent reports of the association between anticoagulants and mortality and functional outcomes. This study aimed to quantify the association between anticoagulant/antiplatelet medication at the time of injury and both short-term and longer-term outcomes in older major trauma patients. METHODS: This was a population-based registry study using data from the Victorian State Trauma Registry from July 2017 to June 2018. We included patients with major trauma aged 65 years and older. The outcomes of interest were in-hospital mortality, hospital length of stay, intensive care unit length of stay and the Extended Glasgow Outcome Scale (GOS-E) at 6 months after injury. We examined the association between the outcomes and anticoagulants/antiplatelet agents at the time of injury and used multivariable logistic regression models to account for known confounders. RESULTS: There were 1323 older adults eligible for inclusion in the study, of which 249 (18.8%) were taking anticoagulants (n=8 were taking both anticoagulants and antiplatelet agents), 380 (28.7%) were taking antiplatelet agents and 694 (52.5%) were not using either. Any anticoagulant use was associated with higher odds of in-hospital mortality (adjusted OR (AOR), 2.38; 95% CI 1.58 to 3.59) compared with not using anticoagulants. No differences were observed in the GOS-E at 6 months after injury between any anticoagulants use, antiplatelet use and no anticoagulant use (anticoagulant AOR, 0.71; 95% CI 0.48 to 1.05, antiplatelet AOR, 1.02; 95% CI 0.73 to 1.42). CONCLUSION: Anticoagulant use at the time of injury was associated with higher odds of in-hospital mortality but did not adversely impact functional outcomes at 6 months after injury. These findings demonstrate the importance of seeking an accurate history of anticoagulant use and its indication, as well as the immediate initiation of reversal therapies.

Synthetic proteins for COVID-19 diagnostics.

There is an urgent need for inexpensive, rapid and specific antigen-based assays to test for vaccine efficacy and detect infection with SARS-CoV-2 and its variants. We have identified a small, synthetic protein (JS7), representing a region of maximum variability within the receptor binding domain (RBD), which binds antibodies in sera from nine patients with PCR-verified COVID-19 of varying severity. Antibodies binding to either JS7 or the SARS-CoV-2 recombinant RBD, as well as those that disrupt binding between a fragment of the ACE2 receptor and the RBD, are proportional to disease severity and clinical outcome. Binding to JS7 was inhibited by linear peptides from the RBD interface with ACE2. Variants of JS7, such as E484K or N501Y, can be quickly synthesized in pure form in large quantities by automated methods. JS7 and related synthetic antigens can provide a basis for specific diagnostics for SARS-CoV-2 infections.

COVID-19-We urgently need to start developing an exit strategy.

AIM: The purpose of this perspective is to review the options countries have to exit the draconian "lockdowns" in a carefully staged manner. METHODS: Experts from different countries experiencing Corona Virus Infectious Disease 2019 (COVID-19) reviewed evidence and country-specific approaches and the results of their interventions. RESULTS: Three factors are essential: 1. Reintroduction from countries with ongoing community transmission; 2. The need for extensive testing capacity and widespread community testing, and 3. An adequate supply of personal protective equipment, PPE, to protect health care workers. Discussed at length are lifting physical distancing, how to open manufacturing and construction, logistics, and the opening of higher educational institutions and schools. The use of electronic surveillance is considered. CONCLUSION: Each country should decide on the best path forward. However, we can learn from each other, and the approaches are, in reality, very similar.

Long-Term Outcomes after Severe Traumatic Brain Injury in Older Adults. A Registry-based Cohort Study.

Rationale: Older adults (≥65 yr old) account for an increasing proportion of patients with severe traumatic brain injury (TBI), yet clinical trials and outcome studies contain relatively few of these patients.Objectives: To determine functional status 6 months after severe TBI in older adults, changes in this status over 2 years, and outcome covariates.Methods: This was a registry-based cohort study of older adults who were admitted to hospitals in Victoria, Australia, between 2007 and 2016 with severe TBI. Functional status was assessed with Glasgow Outcome Scale Extended (GOSE) 6, 12, and 24 months after injury. Cohort subgroups were defined by admission to an ICU. Features associated with functional outcome were assessed from the ICU subgroup.Measurements and Main Results: The study included 540 older adults who had been hospitalized with severe TBI over the 10-year period; 428 (79%) patients died in hospital, and 456 (84%) died 6 months after injury. There were 277 patients who had not been admitted to an ICU; at 6 months, 268 (97%) had died, 8 (3%) were dependent (GOSE 2-4), and 1 (0.4%) was functionally independent (GOSE 5-8). There were 263 patients who had been admitted to an ICU; at 6 months, 188 (73%) had died, 39 (15%) were dependent, and 32 (12%) were functionally independent. These proportions did not change over longer follow-up. The only clinical features associated with a lower rate of functional independence were Injury Severity Score ≥25 (adjusted odds ratio, 0.24 [95% confidence interval, 0.09-0.67]; P = 0.007) and older age groups (P = 0.017).Conclusions: Severe TBI in older adults is a condition with very high mortality, and few recover to functional independence.

Differences in the epidemiology of out-of-hospital and in-hospital trauma deaths.

BACKGROUND: Trauma is a leading cause of mortality. Holistic views of trauma systems consider injury as a public health problem that requires efforts in primary, secondary and tertiary prevention. However, the performance of trauma systems is commonly judged on the in-hospital mortality rate. Such a focus misses opportunities to consider all deaths within a population, to understand differences in in-hospital and out-of-hospital trauma deaths and to inform population-level injury prevention efforts. The aim of this study was to provide an epidemiological overview of out-of-hospital and in-hospital trauma deaths in a geographically-defined area over a 10-year period. METHODS: We performed a population-based review of out-of-hospital and in-hospital trauma deaths over the period of 01 July 2006 to 30 June 2016 in Victoria, Australia, using data from the National Coronial Information System and the Victorian State Trauma Registry. Temporal trends in population-based incidence rates were evaluated. RESULTS: Over the study period, there were 11,246 trauma deaths, of which 71% were out-of-hospital deaths. Out-of-hospital trauma deaths commonly resulted from intentional self-harm events (50%) and transport events (35%), while in-hospital trauma deaths commonly resulted from low falls (≤1 metre) (50%). The incidence of overall trauma deaths did not change over the study period (incidence rate ratio 0.998; 95%CI: 0.991, 1.004; P = 0.56). CONCLUSIONS: Out-of-hospital deaths accounted for most trauma deaths. Given the notable differences between out-of-hospital and in-hospital trauma deaths, monitoring of all trauma deaths is necessary to inform injury prevention activities and to reduce trauma mortality. The absence of a change in the incidence of both out-of-hospital and in-hospital trauma deaths demonstrates the need for enhanced activities across all aspects of injury prevention.