Social cognition in individuals with schizophrenia, autism spectrum disorder and controls / Cognição social em indivíduos saudáveis, com esquizofrenia e com transtorno do espectro do autismo

ABSTRACT Objective: The aim of this study was to compare the social cognition profiles of male adults with ASD (n = 15), SCHZ (n = 16) and controls (n = 20). Change the second sentence of the abstract. Methods: A cross-sectional assessment of social cognition domains with emotional face perception with eye tracking was performed, and two IQ measures (Verbal IQ and Performance IQ) (Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale), and the DSM-IV Structured Clinical Interview were applied. Results: There were no significant differences in terms of average performance in social cognition tests or eye tracking tasks between the ASD and SCHZ groups. However, both had lower performances in most cases when compared to the control group. In the social cognition tasks, individuals in the control group performed better than both clinical groups. Conclusion: Although differences were identified between individuals with ASD and SCHZ, it was not possible to determine patterns or to differentiate the clinical groups.

RESUMO Objetivo: O objetivo deste estudo foi comparar os perfis de cognição social de adultos do sexo masculino com TEA (n = 15), SCHZ (n = 16) e controles (n = 20). Métodos: Foram aplicadas uma avaliação transversal dos domínios de cognição social com percepção emocional com rastreamento ocular, duas medidas de QI (QI verbal e QI de desempenho) (Escala de Inteligência Adulta de Wechsler) e a Entrevista Clínica Estruturada DSM-IV. Resultados: Não houve diferenças significativas em termos de desempenho médio em testes de cognição social ou tarefas de rastreamento ocular entre os grupos ASD e SCHZ. No entanto, ambos tiveram desempenhos mais baixos na maioria dos casos, quando comparados ao grupo controle. Nas tarefas de cognição social, os indivíduos do grupo controle tiveram melhor desempenho do que ambos os grupos clínicos. Conclusão: Embora tenham sido identificadas diferenças entre indivíduos com TEA e SCHZ, não foi possível determinar padrões ou diferenciar os grupos clínicos.

Hábitos de sono e relação com indicadores de saúde mental na infância / Sleep habits and relationship with mental health indicators in childhood / Hábitos de sueño y relación con indicadores de salud mental en la infancia

Este estudo investigou a relação entre hábitos de sono e indicadores de saúde mental na infância relatados por cuidadores, além de buscar evidências de validade e precisão da adaptação para o Brasil do Children's Sleep Habits Questionnaire (CSHQ). Participaram 60 crianças, entre 4 e 10 anos, de uma escola pública da região central de São Paulo, em 2019. A média geral no CSHQ-BR foi 49,08. Não houve diferenças de sexo nos escores do CSHQ e do Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire (SDQ). Houve correlações positivas e significativas entre o CSHQ e o SDQ, especificamente entre dificuldades, parassonias e distúrbios respiratórios do sono com problemas emocionais e hiperatividade. Hábitos de sono explicaram 23% da variância no SDQ. O coeficiente alfa de Cronbach do CSHQ-BR foi 0,75, indicando consistência interna adequada. Esses achados apontam evidências de validade e precisão do CSHQ-BR. Hábitos de sono estão associados a indicadores de problemas emocionais e comportamentais.

This study investigated the relationship between sleep habits and mental health indicators in childhood reported by caregivers, in addition to seeking evidence of validity and reliability of the Children Sleep Habits Questionnaire (CSHQ), Brazilian version (CSHQ-BR). Sixty children participated, between 4 and 10 years old, from a public school in the central region of São Paulo, in 2019. The overall mean of the CSHQ-BR score was 49.08. There were no differences between sex in the CSHQ and the Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire (SDQ) scores. Positive and significant correlations were observed between the CSHQ and the SDQ, specifically between difficulties, parasomnias, sleep-disordered breathing with emotional problems, and hyperactivity. Sleep problems explain 23% of the variance of the SDQ scores. The Cronbach's Alpha Coefficient was 0.75, indicating adequate internal consistency. These findings point to evidence of the validity and accuracy of the CSHQ-BR. Sleep habits are associated with indi-cators of emotional and behavioral problems

Se investigó la relación entre hábitos de sueño y indicadores de salud mental infantil reportados por cuidadores, además de buscar evidencia de validez y precisión de la adaptación del Cuestionario de Hábitos de Sueño Infantil (CSHQ) para Brasil. En 2019 participaron 60 niños de 4 a 10 años de una escuela pública de la región central de São Paulo. El promedio general en el CSHQ-BR fue 49,08. No hubo diferencias de género en las puntuaciones del CSHQ y del Cuestionario de Fortalezas y Dificultades (SDQ). Hubo correlaciones positivas y significativas entre CSHQ y SDQ, específicamente entre dificultades, parasomnias y trastornos respiratorios del sueño con problemas emocionales e hiperactividad. Hábitos de sueño explicaron 23% de la variación en el SDQ. El coeficiente alfa de Cronbach de CSHQ-BR fue 0,75, indicando una consistencia interna adecuada. Estos hallazgos apuntan evidencia de validez y precisión del CSHQ-BR. Hábitos de sueño están asociados con indicadores de problemas emocionales y de comportamiento.

Sleep Problems Before and During the COVID-19 Pandemic in Children with Autism Spectrum Disorder, Down Syndrome, and Typical Development.

Sleep problems are common in children and adolescents, particularly those with Neurodevelopmental Disorders. With the changes in daily habits resulting from the COVID-19 pandemic, we have analyzed sleep characteristics, during social isolation, in Brazilian children and adolescents aged between 4 and 12 years with Autism Spectrum Disorder (N = 267), Down Syndrome (N = 74), and typical development (N = 312). The ASD group presented with worse indicators of sleep habits in the Children's Sleep Habits Questionnaire (CSHQ-BR) and fell asleep later during the pandemic. The entire group started fall asleep and waking up later during the pandemic - as well as waking up more often during the night. These results may contribute to parental guidance and sleep habit-related interventions during and after the COVID-19 pandemic.

Translation and adaptation into Brazilian Portuguese and investigation of the psychometric properties of the Children's Sleep Habits Questionnaire (CSHQ-BR).

OBJECTIVES: To translate to Brazilian Portuguese, culturally adapt and confirm the psychometric parameters of validity and reliability of the Children's Sleep Habits Questionnaire (CSHQ-BR) in children. METHODS: A sample of 314 typically developing children, 51% girls, mean age 7.12 years (SD = 2.04 years) were assessed, comprising 227 from São Paulo and 87 from the Amazon region. Translation, back translation, cultural adaptation, a pilot study and item review were carried out, yielding the final version of the CSHQ. Psychometric parameters were determined based on content validity coefficient (CVC), test-retest, internal consistency, evidence of convergent validity and internal structure. RESULTS: The final CVC for the scale was 0.88. Intraclass correlation was 0.98 for the overall questionnaire and ranged from 0.88 to 0.98 for subscales. CSHQ-BR internal consistency was α = 0.81 for the CSHQ-BR total score (95% CI) and from 0.51 to 0.75 for subscales. Exploratory factor analysis suggested a novel 4-factor structure. A positive correlation was found between the CSHQ and the Questionnaire on Sleep Behavior. Mean total CSHQ score in Brazilian children was 46.85 (SD = 9.43), and boys had a higher mean total score than girls, although not statistically significant. CONCLUSION: The CSHQ-BR exhibited satisfactory equivalence for the original English abbreviated form and the Brazilian Portuguese version, proving a useful sleep screening instrument for identifying sleep problems in Brazilian children aged 4-10 years.

Relations between theory of mind and family environment among Brazilian preschool children.

Given the importance of the environment for the development of the theory of mind (ToM) in childhood, as well as the scarcity of studies in low-income Latin American countries, we aimed to investigate the relation between family environment characteristics and performance in ToM tasks in a group of Brazilian children. A total of 49 children participated, whose ages ranged between 3 and 5 years (M = 4.43; SD = 0.71), all of whom attended a public kindergarten school located in the metropolitan region of São Paulo, Brazil, and took the Theory of mind test for children (TMTC). The observation of the characteristics of the family environment was conducted by using the Home Observation for Measurement of the Environment (HOME) instrument in the very home setting of each participating child. By controlling the effects of children's age, intelligence, vocabulary, and mother's and father's educational level, a consistent positive, significant, and low-magnitude correlation was found between HOME's Responsiveness subscale with the total score in TMTC. A robust regression analysis also showed that individual and contextual variables (above cited, plus sex) and Responsiveness accounted for 28.4% of ToM variance. This study corroborates previous findings on the relation between family aspects and ToM, specifically highlighting parents' responsiveness.

The Child Emotion Facial Expression Set: A Database for Emotion Recognition in Children.

Background: This study developed a photo and video database of 4-to-6-year-olds expressing the seven induced and posed universal emotions and a neutral expression. Children participated in photo and video sessions designed to elicit the emotions, and the resulting images were further assessed by independent judges in two rounds. Methods: In the first round, two independent judges (1 and 2), experts in the Facial Action Coding System, firstly analysed 3,668 emotions facial expressions stimuli from 132 children. Both judges reached 100% agreement regarding 1,985 stimuli (124 children), which were then selected for a second round of analysis between judges 3 and 4. Results: The result was 1,985 stimuli (51% of the photographs) were produced from 124 participants (55% girls). A Kappa index of 0.70 and an accuracy of 73% between experts were observed. Lower accuracy was found for emotional expression by 4-year-olds than 6-year-olds. Happiness, disgust and contempt had the highest agreement. After a sub-analysis evaluation of all four judges, 100% agreement was reached for 1,381 stimuli which compound the ChildEFES database with 124 participants (59% girls) and 51% induced photographs. The number of stimuli of each emotion were: 87 for neutrality, 363 for happiness, 170 for disgust, 104 for surprise, 152 for fear, 144 for sadness, 157 for anger 157, and 183 for contempt. Conclusions: The findings show that this photo and video database can facilitate research on the mechanisms involved in early childhood recognition of facial emotions in children, contributing to the understanding of facial emotion recognition deficits which characterise several neurodevelopmental and psychiatric disorders.

Parental Perception of Word Acquisition and Loss in Autism: A Comparative Study / Percepção Parental sobre Aquisição e Perda de Palavras no Autismo: Estudo Comparativo / Percepción de los Padres de la Adquisición y Pérdida de Palabras en el Autismo: Un Estudio Comparativo

Abstract Some children with Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD) experience the loss of previously acquired abilities, especially that of using words, a phenomenon that is still poorly understood. This study aimed to investigate parents' perceptions of the age of word acquisition and word loss in individuals with ASD as compared to children with Down Syndrome (DS) and those with typical development (CG). Parents of 77 individuals with ASD, 33 with DS, and 63 from CG completed an inventory on the loss of words and developmental abilities. The median age of acquisition of the first words was 14 months for the ASD group, approximately 4 months after those in CG, and 23 months for the SD group. Word loss occurred only in the ASD group (36.4%). The median age of loss was 18 months. Parents' perception of word loss can contribute to the understanding of this phenomenon as a potential early ASD indicator.

Resumo Algumas crianças com Transtorno do Espectro Autista (TEA) apresentam perda de habilidades previamente adquiridas, especialmente a de utilização de palavras, fenômeno ainda pouco compreendido. O objetivo deste estudo foi investigar a percepção dos pais sobre a idade de aquisição e perda de palavras em indivíduos com TEA, comparados a crianças com Síndrome de Down (SD) e desenvolvimento típico (GC). Pais de 77 indivíduos com TEA, de 33 com SD e 63 do GC preencheram um inventário sobre perda de palavras e habilidades de desenvolvimento. A mediana da idade de aquisição das primeiras palavras foi 14 meses no TEA, em torno de quatro meses após o GC, e 23 meses no grupo SD. A perda de palavras ocorreu apenas no grupo TEA (36,4%). A mediana da idade da perda foi 18 meses. A percepção dos pais sobre a perda de palavras pode contribuir para o entendimento desse fenômeno como um potencial indicador precoce do TEA.

Resumen Algunos niños con trastorno del espectro autista (TEA) experimentan la pérdida de habilidades previamente adquiridas, especialmente palabras, un fenómeno que aún no se comprende bien. El objetivo de este estudio fue investigar la percepción de los padres sobre laedad de adquisición y la perdida de las primeras palabras em indivíduos con TEA, Síndrome de Down (SD) y grupo control típico (GC). Padres de 77 individuos con TEA, 33 com SD y 63 del GC respondieron un inventario de pérdida de vocabulario y habilidades de desarrollo. La mediana de edad de adquisición de las primeras palabras fue 14 meses em el TEA, alrededor de 4 meses más tarde que el GC, y 23 meses en el grupo SD. La pérdida de vocabulário fue observada solamente em el grupo TEA (36,4%). En este grupo la mediana de edad de ocurrencia de la pérdida fue 18 meses. La percepción de los padres de la pérdida de vocabulário puede contribuir a la comprensión de este fenómeno como un potencial indicador precoz del TEA.

Reconhecimento de Palavras, Fluência e Compreensão de Leitura em Alunos com Transtorno do Espectro Autista / Word Recognition, Fluence and Reading Comprehension in Students with Autism Spectrum Disorder

RESUMO Tendo em vista que o desempenho acadêmico é um dos fatores associados ao bom prognóstico no Transtorno do Espectro Autista (TEA), este estudo avaliou diferentes aspectos cognitivos da leitura em oito meninos com TEA, entre 10 e 13 anos (M=10,87; DP=1,12), de escolas públicas e privadas. Avaliou-se o reconhecimento de palavras (TCLPP II), a fluência (TFL) e a compreensão de leitura (TCCL), bem como o Quociente de Inteligência (QI) Estimado (Vocabulário e Raciocínio Matricial do WASI). Os resultados demonstram frequência maior de desempenhos abaixo da média em compreensão de leitura e maior frequência de desempenhos na média tanto no reconhecimento de palavras quanto na fluência de leitura. Em relação ao tempo nas tarefas de fluência e compreensão, houve maior frequência de classificações na média. Não houve correlação significativa entre Vocabulário do WASI e o QI com os testes de leitura. Entretanto, houve correlação positiva, significativa e de alta magnitude entre reconhecimento de palavras com os escores em fluência e compreensão. Uma tendência de magnitude moderada foi observada entre essas duas últimas variáveis. Conhecer o perfil de leitura do aluno com TEA, a partir da avaliação do reconhecimento de palavras, da fluência e da compreensão, possibilita orientar adaptações escolares, com impacto no seu desenvolvimento acadêmico e prognóstico.

ABSTRACT Considering that academic performance is one of the factors associated with a good prognosis in the Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD), this study evaluated different cognitive aspects of reading in 8 boys with ASD, between 10 and 13 years old (M=10.87; SD=1.12), of public and private schools. Word recognition (TCLPP II), fluency (TFL) and reading comprehension (TCCL) were evaluated, as well as Estimated IQ (Vocabulary and Matrix Reasoning of the WASI). The results demonstrate a higher frequency of below-average performances in reading comprehension skills, higher frequency of performances on average in word recognition and reading fluency. Regarding the time on fluency and comprehension tasks, there was a higher frequency of average classifications. There was no significant correlation between the Vocabulary and the IQ with the reading tests. However, there was a positive, significant and high magnitude correlation between word recognition with fluency and comprehension scores. A trend of moderate magnitude was observed between these last two variables. The knowledge about the reading profile of students with ASD obtained from the assessment of word recognition, fluency and comprehension makes it possible to guide school adaptations, with an impact on their academic development and prognosis.

Theory of mind complex task: validity based on relationships with external variables / Tarefa complexa de teoria da mente: validade baseada nas relações com variáveis externas / Tarea compleja de la teoría de la mente: validez basada en relaciones con variables externas

Most research on Theory of Mind (ToM) focuses on preschool years, with few studies targeting later years, especially in the national context. This study aimed to investigate evidence of the validity of a Theory of Mind Complex Task from the relationship with the external variables: age, type of school, and vocabulary. Ninety-eight children, aged between 6 and 9, from private and public schools participated. Results showed age and school effect, with better performance of children from private schools. There was a positive, significant, and moderate magnitude correlation with vocabulary. This study provides the first sources of evidence of task validity, indicating that age and type of school were relevant variables for ToM performance, and therefore should be considered in the elaboration of future norms.

A maior parte das pesquisas sobre a teoria da mente (ToM) concentra-se nos anos pré-escolares, sendo poucos os estudos direcionados aos anos posteriores, principalmente em contexto nacional. O objetivo deste estudo foi investigar evidências de validade de uma tarefa complexa de ToM a partir da relação com variáveis externas: idade, tipo de escola e vocabulário. Participaram 98 crianças, entre 6 e 9 anos de idade, de escolas privadas e públicas. Os resultados obtidos mostraram efeito de idade e de escola, com melhor desempenho das crianças de escolas privadas. Houve correlação positiva, significativa e de magnitude moderada com vocabulário. Este estudo disponibiliza as primeiras fontes de evidências de validade da tarefa, indicando que idade e tipo de escola se mostraram variáveis relevantes para o desempenho em ToM, as quais, por isso, devem ser consideradas na elaboração de normas futuras.

Las investigaciones sobre la teoría de la mente (ToM) se centra en los años preescolares, especialmente en el contexto nacional. El objetivo de este estudio fue investigar la evidencia de la validez de una tarea compleja de la ToM a partir de la relación con variables externas: edad, tipo de escuela y vocabulario. Participaron 98 niños, de edades comprendidas entre 6 y 9 años, de escuelas privadas y públicas. Los resultados mostraron efecto de la edad y escolar, con un mejor desempeño de los niños de escuelas privadas. Hubo una correlación de magnitud moderada, positiva y significativa con el vocabulario. Este estudio proporciona las primeras fuentes de evidencia de la validez de la tarea, indicando que la edad y el tipo de escuela son variables relevantes para el desempeño de la ToM y, por lo tanto, deberían considerarse en la elaboración de normas futuras.

Autism Spectrum Disorders: Assessment of cognitive abilities using the non-verbal SON-R 6-40 / Transtorno do Espectro Autista: Avaliação de habilidades cognitivas utilizando o teste não-verbal SON-R 6-40

Abstract Cognition in individuals with Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD) shows large variability. Nonverbal tests can be more suitable for cognitive assessment in this group. We investigated cognitive abilities in ASD using the SON-R 6-40 Nonverbal Intelligence Test. A total of 37 individuals with ASD (AG) aged 6-24 years participated. Cognitive assessment of the AG was done using the SON-R 6-40 and performance compared with the standardized sample which served as the control group (CG). Results showed lower subtest scores in the AG than in the CG. Approximately 84% of the AG had intellectual disability according to IQ scores. Individuals with preserved speech in the AG had higher IQ scores than patients without preserved speech. There was no relationship between intelligence and ASD symptom severity as reported by families.

Resumo A cognição de indivíduos com Transtorno do Espectro Autista (TEA) apresenta grande variabilidade. Testes não-verbais podem ser mais adequados para avaliação cognitiva desta população. Investigou-se as habilidades cognitivas de indivíduos com TEA a partir do desempenho no Teste não verbal de inteligência SON-R 6-40. Participaram 37 indivíduos com TEA (GTEA) entre 6 e 24 anos, cujo desempenho no SON-R 6-40 foi comparado ao da amostra normativa do instrumento (GC). Houve pior desempenho do GTEA em todos os subtestes, com diferença significativa em relação ao GC. Quase 84% do GTEA apresentou QI compatível com deficiência intelectual. Aqueles com fala preservada apresentaram desempenho superior ao grupo não-verbal. Não houve relação entre inteligência e gravidade dos sintomas conforme relato das famílias.

Word loss trajectory in autism spectrum disorder: analysis of home videos / Perda de palavras no transtorno do espectro autista: análise de vídeos caseiros / Pérdida del vocabulario en el trastorno del espectro autista: análisis de videos caseros

The regression of previously acquired skills has been highlighted as a potential early indicator of Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD). The aims of the study were to validate parental reports regarding the occurrence of word loss and to investigate the characteristics of the words and other skills in a child aged 42 months with ASD over a 10-month period. It is a longitudinal and exploratory case study using systematic observation. Ten home videos showing the child's behavior between 13 and 23 months of age were analyzed according to the home video observation protocol and PROTEA-R. A total of 171 episodes involving the investigated behaviors were identified, which included the use of 51 words (the majority being nouns). Word loss and loss of other skills (play and social abilities) were observed. Word loss was the first or primary motive for parental concern, reinforcing that this phenomenon constitutes a potential early indicator of ASD.

A regressão de habilidades previamente adquiridas tem sido destacada como um potencial indicador precoce do Transtorno do Espectro Autista (TEA). Os objetivos do estudo de caso longitudinal e exploratório, utilizando observação sistemática foram validar os relatos dos pais sobre a perda de palavras, investigar suas características e outras habilidades em uma criança de 42 meses com TEA ao longo de um período de 10 meses. Foram analisados dez vídeos mostrando o comportamento da criança entre 13 e 23 meses de idade de acordo com um protocolo de observação de vídeos caseiros e do PROTEA-R. Analisamos 171 episódios envolvendo os comportamentos investigados, incluindo o uso de 51 palavras (a maioria substantivos). Observamos perda de palavras e perda de outras habilidades (de brincar e habilidades sociais). A perda de palavras foi o primeiro ou principal motivo de preocupação dos pais, reforçando que esse fenômeno constitui um indicador precoce potencial de TEA.

La regresión de habilidades previamente adquiridas es destacada como un potencial indicador precoz del Trastorno del Espectro del Autismo (TEA). Los objetivos del estudio de caso longitudinal y exploratorio, utilizando observación sistemática, fueron validar relatos de los padres sobre pérdida de vocabulario, investigar sus características y otras habilidades en un niño de 42 meses con TEA en un período de 10 meses. Se analizaron diez vídeos mostrando la conducta del niño entre 13 y 23 meses de edad de acuerdo con un protocolo de observación de vídeos caseros y el PROTEA-R. Analizamos 171 episodios que involucra los comportamientos investigados, incluyendo el uso de 51 palabras (la mayoría de ellos sustantivos). Observamos pérdida de vocabulario y pérdida de otras habilidades (jugar y habilidades sociales). La pérdida de vocabulario fue el primer o principal motivo de preocupación de los padres, reforzando que ese fenómeno constituye un indicador precoz potencial de TEA.

Component mechanisms of executive function in schizophrenia and their contribution to functional outcomes

Objective: In schizophrenia, scores reflecting deficits in different cognitive processes are strongly correlated, making it difficult to establish a solid relationship between different cognitive mechanisms and other features of this disorder. The objective of this study was to explore whether three frequently postulated executive functions (updating, shifting, and inhibition) could be compared between groups and considered independently in terms of their respective roles in functional outcome. Methods: This study relied on confirmatory factor analysis of schizophrenia patients (n=141) and healthy controls (n=119). The main analyses examined the degree to which three executive functions (updating, set-shifting, and inhibition) could be separated in schizophrenia and compared this model among groups. Structural equation modeling analysis was also performed to examine the extent to which executive function components contribute to functional outcome in schizophrenia. Results: Multiple-group confirmatory factor analysis with unconstrained model parameters indicated that the full three-factor model may fit the data in both groups (χ2 = 61.48, degrees of freedom = 34, p < 0.001, comparative fit index = 0.95; standardized root mean square residual = 0.037; root mean square error of approximation = 0.04; Akaike's information criteria = 169.49; normed fit index = 0.90), although there was also a good data fit for the patient group with a two-factor model. In the patient group, structural equation modeling suggested that shifting and (principally) updating were associated with the general measure of functional outcome (regression path coefficients: 0.34, p < 0.005; 0.39, p < 0.005, respectively), although when combined the mechanisms fail to contribute. Conclusion: This data suggests that the factor structure may be similar but not identical between groups, and both updating and shifting may play an important role in functional outcome in schizophrenia.

Component mechanisms of executive function in schizophrenia and their contribution to functional outcomes.

OBJECTIVE: In schizophrenia, scores reflecting deficits in different cognitive processes are strongly correlated, making it difficult to establish a solid relationship between different cognitive mechanisms and other features of this disorder. The objective of this study was to explore whether three frequently postulated executive functions (updating, shifting, and inhibition) could be compared between groups and considered independently in terms of their respective roles in functional outcome. METHODS: This study relied on confirmatory factor analysis of schizophrenia patients (n=141) and healthy controls (n=119). The main analyses examined the degree to which three executive functions (updating, set-shifting, and inhibition) could be separated in schizophrenia and compared this model among groups. Structural equation modeling analysis was also performed to examine the extent to which executive function components contribute to functional outcome in schizophrenia. RESULTS: Multiple-group confirmatory factor analysis with unconstrained model parameters indicated that the full three-factor model may fit the data in both groups (χ2 = 61.48, degrees of freedom = 34, p < 0.001, comparative fit index = 0.95; standardized root mean square residual = 0.037; root mean square error of approximation = 0.04; Akaike's information criteria = 169.49; normed fit index = 0.90), although there was also a good data fit for the patient group with a two-factor model. In the patient group, structural equation modeling suggested that shifting and (principally) updating were associated with the general measure of functional outcome (regression path coefficients: 0.34, p < 0.005; 0.39, p < 0.005, respectively), although when combined the mechanisms fail to contribute. CONCLUSION: This data suggests that the factor structure may be similar but not identical between groups, and both updating and shifting may play an important role in functional outcome in schizophrenia.

Linguagem oral e escrita na Educação Infantil: relação com variáveis ambientais / Lenguaje oral y escrita en la educación infantil: relación con variables ambientales / Oral and written language in Infant Education: relation with environmental Variables

O estudo investigou a relação de variáveis ambientais (nível socioeconômico, ambiente familiar e frequência à pré-escola) com vocabulário em pré-escolares e desempenho posterior em leitura/escrita. Participaram 68 crianças (Idade média = 4,4 anos) de uma escola pública de Educação Infantil e suas respectivas famílias. Utilizou-se o Teste de Vocabulário Auditivo; pais responderam a um questionário de identificação e à escala ABEP. O inventário HOME foi utilizado para a coleta de informação sobre o ambiente familiar. Seis meses depois, o Teste de Leitura e Escrita foi aplicado. Houve melhor desempenho em vocabulário e em leitura/escrita com a progressão escolar e relação moderada entre essas variáveis. Escolaridade materna relacionou-se ao vocabulário e o tempo de frequência à pré-escola com a escrita. Aspectos específicos do ambiente familiar, como os estilos de interação e variedade de estimulação, associaram-se com vocabulário receptivo. O estudo colabora com a investigação sobre como variáveis do meio podem associar-se ao desenvolvimento linguístico infantil.

En el estudio se investigó la relación de variables ambientales (nivel socioeconómico, ambiente familiar y frecuencia al jardín de infancia) con vocabulario en pre-escolares y rendimiento posterior en lectura/escritura. Participaron 68 niños (Promedio de edad =4,4 años) de una escuela pública de Educación Infantil y sus respectivas familias. Se utilizó el Test de Vocabulario Auditivo; padres contestaron a un cuestionario de identificación a la escala ABEP. El inventario HOME fue utilizado para recolecta de información sobre el ambiente familiar. Seis meses después, el Test de Lectura y Escritura fue aplicado. Hubo mejor rendimiento en vocabulario y en lectura/escritura con la progresión escolar y relación moderada entre esas variables. Escolaridad materna se relacionó al vocabulario y el tiempo de frecuencia al jardín de infancia con la escritura. Aspectos específicos del ambiente familiar, como los estilos de interacción y variedad de estimulación, se asociaron con vocabulario receptivo. El estudio colabora a la investigación de como variables del medio pueden asociarse al rendimiento lingüístico infantil.

The study investigated the relationship between environmental variables (socioeconomic level, family environment and attendance at preschool) with pre-school vocabulary and post-reading reading performance. Participants included 68 children (mean age = 4.4 years) from a public school of Early Childhood Education and their respective families. The Auditory Vocabulary Test used; parents answered an identification questionnaire and the ABEP scale. The HOME inventory used to collect information about the family environment. Six months later, the Reading and Writing Test applied. There was better performance in vocabulary and reading / writing with school progression and moderate relation between these variables. Maternal education related to the vocabulary and the time of attendance to the preschool with the writing. Specific aspects of the family environment, such as the styles of interaction and variety of stimulation, were associated with receptive vocabulary. The study supports the investigation of how environmental variables can be associated with children's linguistic development.

Eye Movements and Cognitive Strategy in a Fluid Intelligence Test: Item Type Analysis.

Eye movements help to infer the cognitive strategy that a person uses in fluid intelligence tests. However, intelligence tests demand different relations/rules tokens to be solved, such as rule direction, which is the continuation, variation or overlay of geometric figures in the matrix of the intelligence test. The aim of this study was to understand whether eye movements could predict the outcome of an intelligence test and in the rule item groups. Furthermore, we sought to identify which measure is best for predicting intelligence test scores and to understand if the rule item groups use the same strategy. Accordingly, 34 adults completed a computerized intelligence test with an eye-tracking device. The toggling rate, that is, the number of toggles on each test item equalized by the item latency explained 45% of the variance of the test scores and a significant amount of the rule tokens item groups. The regression analyses also indicated toggling rate as the best measure for predicting the score and that all the rule tokens seem to respect the same strategy. No correlation or difference were found between baseline pupil size and fluid intelligence. Wiener Matrizen-Test 2 was demonstrated to be a good instrument for the purpose of this study. Finally, the implications of these findings for an understanding of cognition are discussed.

Theory of Mind Test for Children: content validity / Teste de Teoria da Mente para Crianças: validade de conteúdo / Test de Teoría de la Mente para Niños: validez de contenido

In the national context, there is a lack of instruments to evaluate Theory of Mind, especially with studies of their psychometric properties. This study aimed to investigate content validity evidence for the Theory of Mind Test for Children - TMEC. The development steps, analysis by expert judges and verification of the applicability of the instrument in children aged between 4 and 6 years are described. The TMEC was organized into 4 subtests, following the tasks model described in the literature. Next, 5 judges investigated the clarity of the instructions, the registration form and the score, the level of difficulty of the items and the need for changes. Items highlighted by the judges were reformulated, following the criterion of at least 80% agreement. The applicability of the instrument in a group of six preschool children was verified, which indicated the need to reword a few items for better understanding of the applicator and the child. (AU)

No contexto nacional, há uma escassez de instrumentos para avaliação de Teoria da Mente, especialmente com estudos de suas propriedades psicométricas. O presente estudo teve por objetivo investigar evidências de validade de conteúdo do Teste de Teoria da Mente para Crianças ­ TMEC. Foram descritas as etapas de elaboração, análise por juízes especialistas e verificação da aplicabilidade do instrumento em crianças entre 4 e 6 anos. O TMEC foi composto por quatro subtestes, seguindo o modelo de tarefas já descritas na literatura. Após, cinco juízes investigaram a clareza das instruções, da forma de registro e pontuação, nível de dificuldade dos itens e necessidade de mudanças. Foram reformulados itens conforme elencado pelos juízes, seguindo o critério de pelo menos 80% de concordância. Foi verificada a aplicabilidade do instrumento em um grupo de seis crianças pré-escolares, que indicou necessidade de reformulações em poucos itens para melhor compreensão do aplicador e da criança. (AU)

En el contexto nacional existen pocos instrumentos para la evaluación de Teoría de la Mente, especialmente con estudios sobre las propiedades psicométricas. Este trabajo tuvo como objetivo investigar evidencias de validez de contenido del Test de Teoría de la Mente para Niños - TMEC. Se describen las etapas de elaboración, análisis por jueces especialistas y se verifica también la aplicación del instrumento en niños de entre 4 y 6 años. El TMEC se compone de 4 sub-tests, siguiendo el modelo de las tareas descriptas en la literatura. Después, cinco jueces investigaron la veracidad de las instrucciones, la forma de registro y puntuación, el nivel de dificultad de los ítems y la necesidad de cambio. Según lo indicado por los jueces, algunos ítems se reformularon, siguiendo el criterio de por lo menos 80% de concordancia. Se verificó la aplicación del instrumento en un grupo de seis niños en edad pre-escolar, indicando la necesidad de reformulación en algunos ítems para la mejor comprensión del aplicador y del niño. (AU)

The Family Environment Assessment: Study of the Use of the EC-HOME in a Brazilian Sample / Avaliação do Ambiente Familiar: Estudo do Uso do EC-HOME em uma Amostra Brasileira / La Evaluación del Entorno Familiar: Estudio del Uso de lo EC-HOME en una Muestra Brasileña

Abstract The family environment may impact child development. However, investigating the family environment in Brazil can be a challenge due to the lack of appropriate instruments. To systematize the study of family environment the Home Observation for Measurement of the Environmen. In ventory (HOME) was developed. The executive functions (EF), important for the control of thinking, behavior and emotion are among the skills affected by variables of the family environment. This study investigated reliability and validity evidences of the Brazilian Early Childhood version of the HOME (EC-HOME). Participants were 63 preschoolers (M=4.41y, SD=0.66), and their respective families. Children were evaluated in EF tasks. Parents responded to an identification and socioeconomic status (SES) questionnaire. Home visits were conducted to apply the EC-HOME, with independent scoring by two evaluators for 20 of them. There was a high interrater agreement and satisfactory Cronbach's alpha coefficient for the total scale. Correlation analysis suggested that the domains of the HOME contain relatively independent contents of the family context. Significant correlations of the HOME domains with SES variables, as well as with children performance in EF tasks, were found. Findings provided some preliminary evidences of validity and reliability of the EC-HOME in a Brazilian sample.

Resumo O ambiente familiar pode impactar o desenvolvimento infantil. Porém, investigar o ambiente familiar no Brasil pode ser um desafio devido à falta de instrumentos adequados. Para sistematizar o estudo do ambiente familiar foi desenvolvido o Home Observation for Measurement of the Environment Inventory (HOME). Dentre as habilidades afetadas por variáveis do ambiente familiar estão as funções executivas (FE), importantes para o controle do pensamento, comportamento e emoção. Este estudo investigou evidências de validade e fidedignidade da versão Early Childhood (EC-HOME) brasileira do HOME. Participaram 63 pré-escolares (M=4,41 anos, DP=0,66), e suas respectivas famílias. As crianças foram avaliadas em tarefas de FE. Os pais responderam um questionário de identificação e de nível socioeconômico (NSE). Visitas domiciliares foram realizadas para aplicar o EC-HOME, com a pontuação independente por dois avaliadores para 20 delas. Observou-se alta concordância entre avaliadores e coeficiente Alpha de Cronbach satisfatório para a escala total. Análise de correlação sugeriu que os domínios do HOME contemplam conteúdos relativamente independentes do contexto familiar. Correlações significativas entre domínios do HOME com variáveis de NSE, assim como com desempenho das crianças nas tarefas de FE, foram encontradas. Achados fornecem algumas evidências preliminares de validade e fidedignidade do EC-HOME em amostra brasileira.

Resumen El entorno familiar puede afectar el desarrollo infantil. Sin embargo, la investigación del entorno familiar en Brasil puede ser un desafío debido a la falta de instrumentos adecuados. Para sistematizar el estudio del entorno familiar se desarrolló el Home Observation for Measurement of the Environmen. In ventory (HOME). Entre las habilidades afectadas por variables del entorno familiar son las funciones ejecutivas (FE), importantes para el control del pensamiento, comportamiento y emoción. Este estudio investigó la fiabilidad y validez de la versión Early Childhood (EC-HOME) brasileña del HOME. Participaron 63 niños (M=4.41 años, DE=0.66) y sus familias. Los niños fueron evaluados en tareas de FE. Los padres respondieron un cuestionario de identificación y de estatus socioeconómico (ESE). Se hicieron visitas a domicilio para aplicar el EC-HOME, con puntuación independiente por dos evaluadores para 20 de ellos. Hubo alto acuerdo entre evaluadores y el alfa de Cronbach fue satisfactorio para la escala total. El análisis de correlación sugiere que los dominios del HOME comprenden contenido relativamente independiente del contexto familiar. Se encontraron correlaciones significativas entre los dominios del HOME con variables de ESE, así como el rendimiento de los niños en tareas de FE. Resultados proporcionan alguna evidencia preliminar de la validez y fiabilidad del EC-HOME en muestra brasileña.

Contribution of Word Reading Speed to Reading Comprehension in Brazilian Children: Does Speed Matter to the Comprehension Model?

Studies have suggested that reading speed (RS) or fluency should be a component of reading comprehension (RC) models. There is also evidence of a relationship between RS and RC. However, some questions remain to be explored, as the changes in such a relationship may be a function of development. In addition, while there are studies published with English speakers and learners, less evidence exists in more transparent orthographies, such as Portuguese. This study investigated the relationship between RC and RS in typical readers. Objectives included elucidating the following: (1) the contribution of RS to RC controlling for intelligence, word recognition, and listening and (2) the differential relationships and contributions of RS to comprehension in different school grades. The sample of participants comprised 212 students (M = 8.76; SD = 1.06) from 2nd to 4th grade. We assessed intelligence, word recognition, word RS, listening, and RC. Performance in all tests increased as a function of grade. There were significant connections between RC and all other measures. Nonetheless, the regression analysis revealed that word RS has a unique contribution to RC after controlling for intelligence, word recognition, and listening, with a very modest but significant improvement in the explanatory power of the model. We found a significant relationship between RS and RC only for 4th grade and such relationship becomes marginal after controlling for word recognition. The findings suggest that RS could contribute to RC in Portuguese beyond the variance shared with listening and, mainly, word recognition, but such a contribution was very small. The data also reveal a differential relationship between RS and RC in different school grades; specifically, only for the 4th grade does RS begins to relate to RC. The findings add a developmental perspective to the study of reading models.

Intervenção multissensorial e fônica nas dificuldades de leitura e escrita: um estudo de caso / Multisensory and phonic intervention in reading and writing difficulties: A Case Study

O estudo teve como objetivo avaliar o efeito de intervenção multissensorial e fônica no desenvolvimento de habilidade de leitura e escrita. O estudo foi conduzido com uma criança de 10 anos, sexo masculino, estudante do 3º do Ensino Fundamental I, proveniente de uma escola particular da cidade de São Paulo, com queixa de dificuldades em leitura e escrita. Foram realizadas avaliações pré e pós à intervenção com os seguintes instrumentos: Escala de Inteligência Wechsler para Crianças (WISC-III); Prova de Consciência Fonológica por Produção Oral; Bateria de Avaliação de Leitura e Escrita (BALE); Teste de Desempenho Escolar; Leitura de Texto; Teste de Repetição de Palavras e Pseudopalavras; Redação Temática. As atividades foram desenvolvidas a partir de uma revisão da literatura para elaborar uma proposta de intervenção baseada em evidências científicas. Foram realizadas 20 sessões de intervenção focadas em estratégias fônicas e multissensoriais, durante período de três meses. Os resultados obtidos a partir da comparação de desempenho pré e pós indicaram que houve melhoras nas habilidades de consciência fonológica, compreensão verbal, acurácia de leitura e escrita de palavras após o período de intervenção. Espera-se que este trabalho possa contribuir para a atuação psicopedagógica clínica e educacional, uma vez que elaborar programas de intervenções baseados em evidências pode fundamentar uma prática mais consistente que permita avaliar e identificar melhoras nas habilidades após um curto período de tempo.

The aim of the study was to develop a multisensory intervention program used in the psychopedagogical practice for reading and writing skills. The study was conducted with a 10-year-old male, a student in 3rd grade of Elementary School, who came from a private school in the city of São Paulo, complaining of difficulties in reading and writing. Pre- and post-intervention evaluations were performed with the following instruments: Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children (WISC-III); Phonological Awareness by Oral Production; Reading and Writing Assessment Battery (BALE); School Performance Test; Reading Text; Test of Word and Pseudowords Repetition; Thematic Writing. The activities were developed based on a review of the literature to elaborate a proposal of intervention based on scientific evidences. Twenty intervention sessions focused on phonic and multisensory strategies were performed during a period of three months. The results obtained from the comparison of pre-and post-performance indicated that there were improvements in phonological awareness skills, verbal comprehension, reading accuracy and word writing after the intervention period. It is hoped that this work may contribute to clinical and educational psychopedagogical performance, since the development of evidence-based intervention programs can support a more consistent practice that allows to evaluate and identify improved skills after a short period of time.

Instrumentos de avaliação de leitura em adultos: um estudo psicométrico / Adult reading assessment tools: a psychometric study

RESUMO Objetivo: investigar as propriedades psicométricas de um teste de desempenho para avaliação de reconhecimento de palavras e de um checklist de autorrelato de dificuldades de leitura/indicadores de dislexia, em uma amostra de adultos. Métodos: foram avaliados 54 sujeitos, idades entre 18 e 57 anos (M=24,16; DP = 7,34), com Ensino Médio completo ou cursando a graduação. As avaliações foram realizadas utilizando o Teste Computadorizado de Competência de Leitura de Palavras para Adultos (TCLP-2) e o questionário de autorrelato Adult Dyslexia Checklist (ADC). Resultados: não foram observadas diferenças de desempenho em função da escolaridade e do gênero. O tempo de resposta foi menor no julgamento dos itens Corretos do TCLP-2 em relação aos itens incorretos (inversão, troca fonológica, erro ortográfico e pseudopalavra homófona). 18,5% dos participantes relataram dificuldades mais severas no ADC. Análise de grupos extremos mostrou que participantes com maiores pontuações/dificuldades no ADC tiveram pior desempenho nos itens Corretos do TCLP-2. Análise fatorial retornou solução com fator único para tipos de itens do TCLP-2. Dados de precisão se mostraram adequados para ambos os instrumentos, com valores de Spearman-Brown e alfa de Cronbach maiores que 0,70. Relações de baixa a moderadas foram observadas entre os dois instrumentos, provendo evidências de validade a ambos. Conclusão: o estudo apresentou dados psicométricos de dois instrumentos para avaliação de leitura em adultos. Ambos mostraram índices satisfatórios de precisão e evidências de validade por relação com outras variáveis. Frente à carência de instrumentos padronizados para avaliação de leitura em adultos no contexto nacional, o estudo estende sua contribuição à futura instrumentalização desta área.

ABSTRACT Purpose: to investigate the psychometric properties of a performance test for assessment of word recognition and a self-report checklist for reading difficulties/ dyslexia indicators in adults. Methods: a total of 54 subjects aged 18-57 years (M = 24.16, SD = 7.34) who had complete high school or were enrolled in college were investigated. The following instruments were used: the Word Reading Competency Test for Adults (WRCT-2), and the self-report questionnaire Adult Dyslexia Checklist (ADC). Results: there were no differences in the participants' performance in terms of educational level or gender. Response time of WRCT-2 items was shorter for the Correct Word items than for the incorrect ones (Inversion, Phonological Exchange, Misspelling, and Pseudo-homophone). Of the 54 participants, 18.5% reported greater difficulties on the ADC. Analysis of the extreme groups showed that the participants with higher scores or difficulties on the ADC had poorer performance on the Correct Word items of the WRCT-2. Factor analysis resulted in a one-factor solution for the WRCT-2 items. Spearman-Brown and Cronbach's alpha values greater than 0.70 indicated good reliability of the instruments used. Low to moderate correlation between the instruments provided evidence of validity to both of them. Conclusion: this study presents psychometric data from two adult reading assessment instruments. Both instruments had satisfactory validity and reliability. Given the lack of national standardized instruments for adult reading assessment, the present study contributes to the development of future instrumentation for this field.