Within-family linkages between parental monitoring and adolescents externalizing problems with autonomy support as a moderator.

Parents' monitoring efforts are thought to be effective in reducing children's future externalizing problems. Empirical evidence for this claim, however, is limited, as only few studies have unraveled the temporal ordering of these constructs. The present six-wave longitudinal study contributed to the existing literature by examining within-family linkages between monitoring efforts (behavioral control and solicitation) and adolescents' externalizing behaviors while controlling for between-family differences. In addition, it was assessed whether these associations differed when using child versus parent reports, differed for less versus more autonomy-supportive parents, and differed for fathers' versus mothers' monitoring efforts. Longitudinal data (six annual waves) of 497 adolescents (56.9% boys, Mage at T1 = 13.03, SD = 0.46), their mothers (N = 495, Mage at T1 = 44.41, SD = 4.45), and their fathers (N = 446, Mage at T1 = 46.74, SD = 5.10) of the Dutch study Research on Adolescent Development and Relationships (RADAR) were used. Results showed no evidence for the claim that parents' monitoring efforts predict future externalizing problems. In contrast, we found some evidence for the idea that parents' monitoring efforts change in reaction to changes in externalizing problems; when adolescents reported higher levels of externalizing problems than usual in 1 year, this predicted less behavioral control from mothers in the next year. Linkages between monitoring efforts and externalizing problems did not differ between less or more autonomy-supportive parents. Overall, our findings suggest that monitoring efforts are not effective, but also not damaging, in relation to adolescents' externalizing problems.

Using machine learning to identify early predictors of adolescent emotion regulation development.

As 20% of adolescents develop emotion regulation difficulties, it is important to identify important early predictors thereof. Using the machine learning algorithm SEM-forests, we ranked the importance of (87) candidate variables assessed at age 13 in predicting quadratic latent trajectory models of emotion regulation development from age 14 to 18. Participants were 497 Dutch families. Results indicated that the most important predictors were individual differences (e.g., in personality), aspects of relationship quality and conflict behaviors with parents and peers, and internalizing and externalizing problems. Relatively less important were demographics, bullying, delinquency, substance use, and specific parenting practices-although negative parenting practices ranked higher than positive ones. We discuss implications for theory and interventions, and present an open source risk assessment tool, ERRATA.

Neurobiological correlates of antisociality across adolescence and young adulthood: a multi-sample, multi-method study.

BACKGROUND: Antisociality across adolescence and young adulthood puts individuals at high risk of developing a variety of problems. Prior research has linked antisociality to autonomic nervous system and endocrinological functioning. However, there is large heterogeneity in antisocial behaviors, and these neurobiological measures are rarely studied conjointly, limited to small specific studies with narrow age ranges, and yield mixed findings due to the type of behavior examined. METHODS: We harmonized data from 1489 participants (9-27 years, 67% male), from six heterogeneous samples. In the resulting dataset, we tested relations between distinct dimensions of antisociality and heart rate, pre-ejection period (PEP), respiratory sinus arrhythmia, respiration rate, skin conductance levels, testosterone, basal cortisol, and the cortisol awakening response (CAR), and test the role of age throughout adolescence and young adulthood. RESULTS: Three dimensions of antisociality were uncovered: 'callous-unemotional (CU)/manipulative traits', 'intentional aggression/conduct', and 'reactivity/impulsivity/irritability'. Shorter PEPs and higher testosterone were related to CU/manipulative traits, and a higher CAR is related to both CU/manipulative traits and intentional aggression/conduct. These effects were stable across age. CONCLUSIONS: Across a heterogeneous sample and consistent across development, the CAR may be a valuable measure to link to CU/manipulative traits and intentional aggression, while sympathetic arousal and testosterone are additionally valuable to understand CU/manipulative traits. Together, these findings deepen our understanding of the fundamental mechanisms underlying different components of antisociality. Finally, we illustrate the potential of using current statistical techniques for combining multiple datasets to draw robust conclusions about biobehavioral associations.

Quality over quantity: A transactional model of social withdrawal and friendship development in late adolescence.

The aim of this study was to test a longitudinal, transactional model that describes how social withdrawal and friendship development are interrelated in late adolescence, and to investigate if post-secondary transitions are catalysts of change for highly withdrawn adolescents' friendships. Unilateral friendship data of 1,019 adolescents (61.3% female, 91% Dutch-origin) from the Tracking Adolescents' Individual Lives Survey (TRAILS) cohort were collected five times from ages 17 to 18 years. Social withdrawal was assessed at 16 and 19 years. The transactional model was tested within a Structural Equation Modeling framework, with intercepts and slopes of friendship quantity, quality, and stability as mediators and residential transitions, education transitions, and sex as moderators. The results confirmed the presence of a transactional relation between withdrawal and friendship quality. Whereas higher age 16 withdrawal predicted having fewer, lower-quality, and less-stable friendships, only having lower-quality friendships, in turn, predicted higher age 19 withdrawal, especially in girls. Residential transitions were catalysts of change for highly withdrawn youth's number of friends: higher withdrawal predicted a moderate increase in number of friends for adolescents who relocated, and no change for those who made an educational transition or did not transition. Taken together, these results indicate that the quality of friendships-over and above number of friends and the stability of those friendships-is particularly important for entrenching or diminishing withdrawal in late adolescence, and that relocating provides an opportunity for withdrawn late adolescents to expand their friendship networks.

Stable Anxiety and Depression Trajectories in Late Adolescence for Oral Contraceptive Users.

Background: The use of oral contraceptives (OCs) has been associated with increased incidences of anxiety and depression, for which adolescents seem to be particularly vulnerable. Rather than looking at singular outcomes, we examined whether OC use is associated with depressive and anxiety symptom trajectories from early adolescence into early adulthood. Materials and Methods: Data from 178 girls were drawn from the Research on Adolescent Development and Relationships (RADAR-Y) younger cohort study. We used assessments on 9 waves from age 13 until 24. Developmental trajectories of ratings on the Reynolds Adolescent Depression Scale (RADS-2) and the Screen for Child Anxiety Related Emotional Disorders (SCARED) were compared between never and ever users of OCs. Results: Never users showed increases in depressive and anxiety symptoms in late adolescence, whereas OC users showed a stable level of symptoms throughout adolescence. This effect remained after adjusting for baseline differences between groups in romantic relationships, sexual debut, educational level, smoking, drinking, and drug use. Age of OC use onset did not significantly predict symptom development. Conclusions: OC use in adolescence was related to an altered developmental trajectory of internalizing symptoms, in which OC users did not show an increase in depressive and anxiety symptoms in late adolescence, whereas never users did. The question remains whether this altered symptom trajectory can be considered a protective effect of OC use on psychopathology. Additional research is needed to improve our understanding of the long-term consequences of OC use on mental health.

Peer Victimization, Internalizing Problems, and the Buffering Role of Friendship Quality: Disaggregating Between- and Within-Person Associations.

Although many studies have shown an association between peer victimization and internalizing problems, which may be buffered by friendship quality, it is unclear whether these associations apply to within-person processes as well. This would mean that at times when adolescents experience more victimization than they usually do, they also experience more internalizing problems. The current study disaggregated between- and within-person variation to examine the association between peer victimization and symptoms of depression and anxiety, and the protective effect of friend support and conflict. Participants were 497 Dutch adolescents (56% boys) with a mean age of 13.03 (SDage = 0.45, ranging from 11.68 to 15.56 at Wave 1). They participated in a 6-wave questionnaire study, with each wave taking place approximately one year after the previous. The results showed that peer victimization was associated with depressive symptoms and anxiety across adolescence, both between and within persons. Friend support buffered this association at the between-person level, but not the within-person level. This study highlights the impact of peer victimization and suggests that friend support may partly protect adolescents from the effects of peer victimization.

Parent-child personality similarity and differential autonomy support toward siblings.

Since parental differential treatment is related to more adjustment difficulties over and above main effects of parental treatment, it is important to understand under what conditions differential parenting is likely to occur. Using a within-family design, this study focused on between-sibling differences in parent-child personality similarity as a potential predictor of differential autonomy support from fathers and mothers. Longitudinal data (6 annual waves) of 497 target adolescents (56.9% boys, Mage at T1 = 13.03), one of their siblings (N = 416, Mage at T1 = 14.92), their fathers (N = 446, Mage at T1 = 46.74), and their mothers (N = 495, Mage at T1 = 44.41) were used. Parent-child personality similarity was determined based on distinctive profile correlations using the Big Five personality inventory. Structural Equation Modeling showed that the association between sibling differences in mother-child similarity and maternal autonomy support was positive and significant at the between-family level, and not at the within-family level. This means that, in families where one sibling was relatively more similar to the mother, the sibling with closer resemblance to the mother received relatively more autonomy support. No significant effects were found for fathers' differential autonomy support. The present study highlights the importance of considering parent-child similarity in personality for understanding differences between siblings in maternal autonomy support. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2022 APA, all rights reserved).

Explaining Heterogeneity of Daily Conflict Spillover in the Family: The Role of Dyadic Marital Conflict Patterns.

In this multi-informant, longitudinal, daily diary study, we investigated whether long-term dyadic patterns of marital conflict resolution explain the heterogeneity in short-term day-to-day cross-lagged associations between marital conflict intensity and mother-adolescent conflict intensity. The sample consisted of 419 adolescents (44.6% girls, Mage = 13.02, SD = 0.44, at T1; Mage = 17.02, SD = 0.44, at T5), their mothers (N = 419, Mage = 44.48, SD = 4.17, at T1), and their fathers (N = 419, Mage = 46.76, SD = 4.99, at T1). Mothers and fathers reported on their marital conflict resolution strategies annually across 5 years. Mother-father daily conflict intensity (mother-reported) and mother-adolescent daily conflict intensity (mother- and adolescent-reported) were assessed for 75 days across 5 years. We hypothesized that long-term marital conflict resolution patterns would moderate the short-term daily dynamics of conflict between the marital and the mother-adolescent dyads. Latent Class Growth Analysis revealed four types of families based on long-term dyadic marital conflict resolution, including families where mostly constructive or mostly destructive conflict resolution was used. Dynamic Structural Equation Modeling was used to investigate the daily levels and short-term daily dynamics of conflict, revealing that for most families there were no day-to-day lagged associations between marital conflict and mother-adolescent conflict. Results showed that long-term conflict resolution patterns did not moderate the short-term dynamics of daily conflict. However, differences among long-term marital conflict resolution patterns were found in the levels of daily conflict, such that in families with long-term destructive conflict resolution patterns, daily conflict intensity was higher.

En este estudio de informantes múltiples, longitudinal y de registro diario, investigamos si los patrones diádicos de resolución de conflictos conyugales a largo plazo explican la heterogeneidad en las asociaciones diarias de retardo cruzado a corto plazo entre la intensidad del conflicto conyugal y la intensidad del conflicto entre las madres y los adolescentes. La muestra estuvo integrada por 419 adolescentes (el 44.6 % niñas, edad promedio = 13.02, desviación típica = 0.44, en la T1; edad promedio = 17.02, desviación típica= 0.44, en la T5), sus madres (número = 419, edad promedio = 44.48, desviación típica = 4.17, en la T1), y sus padres (número = 419, edad promedio= 46.76, desviación típica = 4.99, en la T1). Las madres y los padres informaron sus estrategias de resolución de conflictos conyugales anualmente durante cinco años. Se evaluaron la intensidad del conflicto diario entre la madre y el padre (informado por la madre) y la intensidad del conflicto diario entre la madre y el adolescente (informado por la madre y el adolescente) durante 75 días a lo largo de cinco años. Planteamos la hipótesis de que los patrones de resolución de conflicto conyugal a largo plazo moderarían la dinámica diaria de conflicto a corto plazo entre la díada conyugal y la díada madre-adolescente. El análisis de crecimiento de clases latentes reveló cuatro tipos de familias sobre la base de la resolución de conflictos conyugales diádicos a largo plazo, incluidas las familias donde se usó la resolución de conflictos principalmente constructiva o principalmente destructiva. Se utilizó el modelo de ecuaciones estructurales dinámicas para investigar los niveles diarios y la dinámica diaria de conflicto a corto plazo, el cual reveló que para la mayoría de las familias no hubo asociaciones diarias retardadas entre el conflicto conyugal y el conflicto entre madres y adolescentes. Los resultados indicaron que los patrones de resolución de conflictos a largo plazo no moderaron la dinámica a corto plazo del conflicto diario. Sin embargo, se encontraron diferencias entre los patrones de resolución de conflictos conyugales a largo plazo en los niveles de conflicto diario, de modo que, en las familias con patrones de resolución de conflictos destructivos a largo plazo, la intensidad del conflicto diario fue mayor.

Identity development across the transition from secondary to tertiary education: A 9-wave longitudinal study.

INTRODUCTION: The transition from secondary to tertiary education could be considered as an opportunity for psychological growth and might play a meaningful role in educational identity development during adolescence. In the present study, we aimed to examine how adolescents differ in their educational identity development across the normative transition from secondary to tertiary education in the Netherlands, and if differences between classes could be described at the socio-demographic, academic, individual, and relational level. METHOD: The present study conducted parallel process piecewise Latent Class Growth Analyses in a sample of 685 Dutch participants (47.0% girls, Mage = 17.29 years old at the time of transition). Longitudinal data from adolescent (bi)annual surveys were centered around the final year of secondary school, with 4 years before the final year and 4 years after. RESULTS: Heterogeneity in the development of identity commitment and reconsideration across the transition was best classified by a 4-class solution. These four classes were labelled Increasing Self-Certainty, Stable Self-Certainty, Post-Transition Uncertainty, and Enduring Uncertainty. Adolescents' patterns of identity development were meaningfully associated with sociodemographic, academic, individual, and relational characteristics. CONCLUSION: The present study discusses the merits of taking a person-centered approach, which indicated adaptive development for the majority of adolescents but also captured distinct patterns of struggles in educational identity development across the transition for a sizable minority.

Social Withdrawal and Romantic Relationships: A Longitudinal Study in Early Adulthood.

Involvement in romantic relationships is a salient developmental task in late adolescence and early adulthood, and deviations from normative romantic development are linked to adverse outcomes. This study investigated to what extent social withdrawal contributed to deviations from normative romantic development, and vice versa, and the interplay between withdrawal and couples' relationship perceptions. The sample included 1710 young adults (55-61% female) from the Tracking Adolescents' Individual Lives Survey cohort and their romantic partners. Data were collected across 4 waves, covering romantic relationships from ages 17 to 29 years. The results showed that higher withdrawal predicted a higher likelihood of romantic non-involvement by adulthood, consistently being single at subsequent waves, and entering one's first relationship when older. Withdrawal moderately decreased when youth entered their first relationship. Male's withdrawal in particular affected romantic relationship qualities and dynamics. These results provide new insights into the developmental sequelae of withdrawn young adults' romantic relationship development.

Daily Identity Dynamics in Adolescence Shaping Identity in Emerging Adulthood: An 11-Year Longitudinal Study on Continuity in Development.

According to identity theory, short-term day-to-day identity exploration and commitment processes are the building blocks for long-term development of stable commitments in emerging adulthood. This key assumption was tested in a longitudinal study including 494 individuals (43% girls, Mage T1 = 13.31 years, range 11.01-14.86 years) who were followed from adolescence into emerging adulthood, covering ages 13 to 24 years. In the first five years, adolescents reported on their daily identity processes (i.e., commitment, reconsideration and in-depth exploration) across 75 assessment days. Subsequently, they reported on their identity across four (bi-) annual waves in emerging adulthood. Findings confirmed the existence of a dual-cycle process model of identity formation and identity maintenance that operated at the within-person level across days during adolescence. Moreover, individual differences in these short-term identity processes in adolescence predicted individual differences in identity development in emerging adulthood. Specifically, those adolescents with low daily commitment levels, and high levels of identity reconsideration were more likely to maintain weak identity commitments and high identity uncertainty in emerging adulthood. Also, those adolescents characterized by stronger daily changes in identity commitments and continuing day-to-day identity uncertainty maintained the highest identity uncertainty in emerging adulthood. These results support the view of continuity in identity development from short-term daily identity dynamics in adolescence to long-term identity development in emerging adulthood.

Longitudinal Linkages Between Father and Mother Autonomy Support and Adolescent Problem Behaviors: Between-Family Differences and Within-Family Effects.

Despite existing evidence on negative associations between parental autonomy support and children's internalizing and externalizing problem behavior, it is difficult to draw conclusions on the effect that parents' autonomy support has on children's problem behavior. This study contributed to the existing literature by unraveling the temporal ordering of parental autonomy support and adolescent problem behavior. In addition, this study examined whether these linkages differed by parent's sex, child sex, and reporter of autonomy support. Data of 497 adolescents (mean age at T1 = 13.03 years, percentage male = 56.9) and their parents from six annual waves of the Dutch study Research on Adolescent Development And Relationships (RADAR) were used. The results showed that stable differences between families explained most linkages between autonomy support and problem behavior. Adolescents with fewer problem behaviors have fathers (both child- and parent-reported) and mothers (only child-reported) who are more autonomy supportive. The results did not differ between boys and girls. The findings suggest that prior studies may have overstated the existence of a causal effect of parental autonomy support on adolescent problem behavior.

Day-to-day spillover and long-term transmission of interparental conflict to adolescent-mother conflict: The role of mood.

Conflicts may drift from one family dyad to another. Short-term spillover and long-term transmission processes suggest that interparental conflict will cause parent-adolescent conflict, and vice versa, as well as that negative mood of parents and adolescents may be one of the transferring mechanisms. This multi-informant daily diary study is among the first to test the day-to-day and year-to-year cross-lagged effects between interparental conflict and later parent-child conflict at the level of individual families (as compared to between-family studies). Also, this study investigated the mediating role of negative mood. Data came from 443 Dutch adolescents (M = 13.02, 44.5% girls) and their mothers. A total of 75 daily diaries regarding conflict and negative mood were completed across 15 weeks spread over 5 years. Random-intercept cross-lagged panel models were applied to investigate long-term year-to-year transmission, and Dynamic Structural Equation Modeling was used to investigate short-term day-to-day spillover. Overall, we found neither short-term spillover, nor long-term transmission, as the reciprocal cross-lagged effects between interparental conflict and adolescent-mother conflict were nonsignificant. Even though we found direct and reciprocal cross-lagged effects between negative mood and both interparental and adolescent-mother conflict on both the day-to-day and year-to-year timescales, both the direct and the indirect effects between interparental and adolescent-mother conflict were nonsignificant. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2020 APA, all rights reserved).

A 6-Year Longitudinal Study of Adolescents and Mothers Depression Symptoms and Their Perception of Support and Conflict.

Interpersonal theories of adolescent depression assume that adolescent and maternal depression symptoms affect adolescent and maternal perceptions of their relationship quality. However, little attention has been given to examining potential bidirectional prospective associations between both adolescent and maternal perceptions of the mother-adolescent relationship and adolescent and maternal depression symptoms across adolescence. We hypothesized that the longitudinal associations between adolescent and maternal depression symptoms and adolescent and maternal perception of conflict and support in the mother-adolescent relationship would be bidirectional. In this 6-year longitudinal study, 497 adolescents (Mage = 13.03) and their mothers participated. Each year both adolescents and their mothers completed questionnaires of their depression symptoms and their perception of conflict and support in the mother-adolescent relationship. Structural equation modelling cross-lagged panel models were constructed and analyzed. The cross-lagged panel models found bidirectional longitudinal associations between adolescent depressive symptoms and higher adolescent-reported conflict and lower adolescent-reported support. In contrast, maternal depressive symptoms were only unidirectionally associated with higher maternal-reported conflict, lower maternal-reported support and higher adolescent depression symptoms. Finally, positive bidirectional longitudinal associations were found between adolescent-reported and maternal-reported conflict, and between adolescent-reported and maternal-reported support. The findings of this study are discussed in relation to Interpersonal Psychotherapy for Depressed Adolescents (IPT-A).

Parent-Adolescent Conflict across Adolescence: Trajectories of Informant Discrepancies and Associations with Personality Types.

Parent-adolescent conflict can be intense, yet parents and adolescents do not always agree on the intensity of conflict. Conflict intensity tends to change during adolescence and is thought to be an indicator of how the parent-adolescent relationship transforms. However, parents and adolescents might differently perceive change in conflict intensity, resulting in changing discrepancies in conflict intensity throughout adolescence. Also, personality characteristics of parents and adolescents might affect the extent to which there are discrepancies in perceptions of conflict intensity. This multi-informant longitudinal study investigated a) the trajectories of parent-adolescent conflict intensity, b) the trajectories of informant discrepancies, and c) the prediction of these trajectories by parental and adolescent personality. Dutch adolescents (N = 497, 43.1% female, Mage = 13.03 at T1), their mothers, and their fathers reported on parent-adolescent conflict intensity and personality for six years. Latent Growth Curve Modeling and Latent Congruence Modeling revealed curvilinear changes in conflict intensity, as well as in discrepancies thereof. Two cycles of discrepancies emerged. First, in early-to-middle-adolescence discrepancies in perceptions of parents and adolescents increased, reflecting that adolescents' perceived conflict intensity increased. Second, in middle-to-late-adolescence, father-adolescent discrepancies increased further, reflecting that fathers' perceptions of conflict decreased. Resilient adolescents, mothers, and fathers reported lower levels of conflict intensity than Undercontrollers and Overcontrollers, but personality was not associated with the rate of change in conflict intensity. Finally, undercontrolling fathers and overcontrolling adolescents showed higher father-adolescent discrepancies. This study showed that parents and adolescents differentially perceive conflict intensity and that in the adolescent-father relationship, the extent of the differences depends on adolescent and father personality.

Parental Age and Offspring Childhood Mental Health: A Multi-Cohort, Population-Based Investigation.

To examine the contributions of maternal and paternal age on offspring externalizing and internalizing problems, this study analyzed problem behaviors at age 10-12 years from four Dutch population-based cohorts (N = 32,892) by a multiple informant design. Bayesian evidence synthesis was used to combine results across cohorts with 50% of the data analyzed for discovery and 50% for confirmation. There was evidence of a robust negative linear relation between parental age and externalizing problems as reported by parents. In teacher-reports, this relation was largely explained by parental socio-economic status. Parental age had limited to no association with internalizing problems. Thus, in this large population-based study, either a beneficial or no effect of advanced parenthood on child problem behavior was observed.

Longitudinal associations between trait neuroticism and negative daily experiences in adolescence.

It is well established that trait neuroticism bears strong links with negative affect and interpersonal problems. The goal of this study was to examine the longitudinal associations between neuroticism and daily experiences of negative affect and interpersonal problems during the developmentally important period of adolescence. Dutch adolescents and their best friends (N = 1,046) completed up to 6 yearly personality trait questionnaires and up to 15 between-year assessment bursts between the ages 13 and 18. During each assessment burst, participants reported on 5 consecutive days about their experiences of negative affect and interpersonal conflict with their mother and their best friend. We estimated a series of multilevel random-intercept cross-lagged panel models to differentiate covariance at the level of constant between-person differences from dynamic processes that occurred within persons. At the level of constant between-person differences, higher neuroticism was associated with more negative daily experiences. At the within-person level, yearly changes in neuroticism were bidirectionally and positively associated with yearly changes in daily negative affect. The most parsimonious, best fitting models did not contain a random intercept for daily conflict with friend and adolescents' contingency between daily experiences of conflict with mother and negative affect. Rank-order differences in these variables were positively associated with subsequent within-person changes in neuroticism. We discuss these results with regard to endogenous versus dynamic theories of personality development and the value of using a differentiated statistical approach. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2020 APA, all rights reserved).

The family context as a foundation for romantic relationships: A person-centered multi-informant longitudinal study.

This 8-wave person-centered multi-informant study tested whether the quality of parent-adolescent relationships predicted the romantic experiences of young adults and their partners (N = 374; 54.8% girls; Mage = 13.08 years, SDage = 0.48 at the first measurement wave). Perceptions of parent-adolescent relationships were assessed using adolescent, mother, and father reports. Results show that both young adults and their partners reported the highest levels of support, intimacy, and passion when young adults had an authoritative relationship quality with their parents. A distant parent-adolescent relationship quality, however, predicted the lowest support, intimacy, and passion in romantic relationships. Interestingly, the association between parent-adolescent relationships with the experience of young adults' romantic partners was indirect. Parent-adolescent relationships predicted target young adults' romantic relationship experiences, which predicted partners' romantic relationship experiences. Parent-child relationship quality therefore has far-reaching, yet subtle, effects on later romantic relationships, affecting both young adults and their partners. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2020 APA, all rights reserved).

Diverse-and-Dynamic Pathways in Educational and Interpersonal Identity Formation during Adolescence: Longitudinal Links With Psychosocial Functioning.

This study aimed to examine the relations between educational and interpersonal identity trajectories and psychosocial functioning based on a three-factor identity process model. A total of 968 Japanese adolescents including 13- and 16-years-olds (49.7% female) participated in a four-wave longitudinal study. Latent class growth analysis extracted five identity trajectories in each educational and interpersonal identity domain and revealed (a) high prevalence of low commitment identity trajectories, (b) absence of the closure trajectory, and (c) changeable identity trajectories that have not been identified in Western context (i.e., the Netherlands). Furthermore, a latent change model revealed dynamic relations between identity trajectories and psychosocial functioning. These findings provide critical insights into the diverse and dynamic pathways of identity formation during adolescence in Japan.

The social withdrawal and social anxiety feedback loop and the role of peer victimization and acceptance in the pathways.

Social withdrawal and social anxiety are believed to have a bidirectional influence on one another, but it is unknown if their relationship is bidirectional, especially within person, and if peer experiences influence this relationship. We investigated temporal sequencing and the strength of effects between social withdrawal and social anxiety, and the roles of peer victimization and acceptance in the pathways. Participants were 2,772 adolescents from the population-based and clinically referred cohorts of the Tracking Adolescents' Individual Lives Survey. Self- and parent-reported withdrawal, and self-reported social anxiety, peer victimization, and perceived peer acceptance were assessed at 11, 13, and 16 years. Random-intercept cross-lagged panel models were used to investigate within-person associations between these variables. There was no feedback loop between withdrawal and social anxiety. Social withdrawal did not predict social anxiety at any age. Social anxiety at 11 years predicted increased self-reported withdrawal at 13 years. Negative peer experiences predicted increased self- and parent-reported withdrawal at 13 years and increased parent-reported withdrawal at 16 years. In turn, self-reported withdrawal at 13 years predicted negative peer experiences at 16 years. In conclusion, adolescents became more withdrawn when they became more socially anxious or experienced greater peer problems, and increasing withdrawal predicted greater victimization and lower acceptance.