Innovative flow-through reaction system for the sustainable production of phenolic monomers from lignocellulose catalyzed by supported Mo2C.

Molybdenum carbide supported on activated carbon (ß-Mo2C/AC) has been tested as catalyst in the reductive catalytic fractionation (RCF) of lignocellulosic biomass both in batch and in Flow-Through (FT) reaction systems. High phenolic monomer yields (34 wt.%) and selectivity to monomers with reduced side alkyl chains (up to 80 wt.%) could be achieved in batch in the presence of hydrogen. FT-RCF were made with no hydrogen feed, thus via transfer hydrogenation from ethanol. Similar selectivity could be attained in FT-RCF using high catalyst/biomass ratios (0.6) and high molybdenum loading (35 wt.%) in the catalyst, although selectivity decreased with lower catalyst/biomass ratios or molybdenum contents. Regardless of these parameters, high delignification of the lignocellulosic biomass and similar monomer yields were observed in the FT mode (13-15 wt.%) while preserving the holocellulose fractions in the delignified pulp. FT-RCF system outperforms the batch reaction mode in the absence of hydrogen, both in terms of activity and selectivity to reduced monomers that is attributed to the two-step non-equilibrium processes and the removal of diffusional limitations that occur in the FT mode. Even though some molybdenum leaching was detected, the catalytic performance could be maintained with negligible loss of activity or selectivity for 15 consecutive runs.

A new oxidative pathway of nitric oxide production from oximes in plants.

Nitric oxide (NO) is an essential reactive oxygen species and a signal molecule in plants. Although several studies have proposed the occurrence of oxidative NO production, only reductive routes for NO production, such as the nitrate (NO-3) -upper-reductase pathway, have been evidenced to date in land plants. However, plants grown axenically with ammonium as the sole source of nitrogen exhibit contents of nitrite and NO3-, evidencing the existence of a metabolic pathway for oxidative production of NO. We hypothesized that oximes, such as indole-3-acetaldoxime (IAOx), a precursor to indole-3-acetic acid, are intermediate oxidation products in NO synthesis. We detected the production of NO from IAOx and other oximes catalyzed by peroxidase (POD) enzyme using both 4-amino-5-methylamino-2',7'-difluorescein fluorescence and chemiluminescence. Flavins stimulated the reaction, while superoxide dismutase inhibited it. Interestingly, mouse NO synthase can also use IAOx to produce NO at a lower rate than POD. We provided a full mechanism for POD-dependent NO production from IAOx consistent with the experimental data and supported by density functional theory calculations. We showed that the addition of IAOx to extracts from Medicago truncatula increased the in vitro production of NO, while in vivo supplementation of IAOx and other oximes increased the number of lateral roots, as shown for NO donors, and a more than 10-fold increase in IAOx dehydratase expression. Furthermore, we found that in vivo supplementation of IAOx increased NO production in Arabidopsis thaliana wild-type plants, while prx33-34 mutant plants, defective in POD33-34, had reduced production. Our data show that the release of NO by IAOx, as well as its auxinic effect, explain the superroot phenotype. Collectively, our study reveals that plants produce NO utilizing diverse molecules such as oximes, POD, and flavins, which are widely distributed in the plant kingdom, thus introducing a long-awaited oxidative pathway to NO production in plants. This knowledge has essential implications for understanding signaling in biological systems.

The Association of HIV-1 Neutralization in Aviremic Children and Adults with Time to ART Initiation and CD4+/CD8+ Ratios.

Broadly neutralizing antibodies (bnAbs) bind and neutralize diverse HIV isolates and demonstrate protective effects in primate models and humans against specific isolates. To develop an effective HIV vaccine, it is widely believed that inducing these antibodies is crucial. However, the high somatic hypermutation in bnAbs and the limited affinity of HIV Env proteins for bnAb germline precursors suggest that extended antigen exposure is necessary for their production. Consequently, HIV vaccine research is exploring complex sequential vaccination strategies to guide the immune response through maturation stages. In this context, the exploration of the factors linked to the generation of these antibodies across diverse age groups becomes critical. In this study, we assessed the anti-HIV-1 neutralization potency and breadth in 108 aviremic adults and 109 aviremic children under 15 years of age who were receiving ART. We used a previously described minipanel of recombinant viruses and investigated the factors associated with neutralization in these individuals. We identified individuals in both groups who were capable of neutralizing viruses from three different subtypes, with greater cross-neutralization observed in the adult group (49.0% vs. 9.2%). In both groups, we observed an inverse association between neutralization breadth and the CD4+/CD8+ ratio, as well as a direct association with the time to ART initiation. However, we found no association with time post-infection, cumulative ART duration, or CD8+ cell levels. The present study demonstrates that children receiving antiretroviral therapy generate broadly neutralizing responses to HIV-1, albeit with lower magnitude compared to adults. We also observed that neutralization breadth is associated with CD4+/CD8+ levels and time to treatment initiation in both children and adults living with HIV-1. Our interpretation of these results is that a delay in ART initiation could have prolonged the antigenic stimulation associated with viral replication and thus facilitate the capacity to elicit long-lasting broadly neutralizing responses. These results corroborate prior findings that show that HIV-1-neutralizing responses can persist for years, even at low antigen levels, implying an HIV-1 vaccine may induce lasting neutralizing antibody response.

The importance of the urea cycle and its relationships to polyamine metabolism during ammonium stress in Medicago truncatula.

The ornithine-urea cycle (urea cycle) makes a significant contribution to the metabolic responses of lower photosynthetic eukaryotes to episodes of high nitrogen availability. In this study, we compared the role of the plant urea cycle and its relationships to polyamine metabolism in ammonium-fed and nitrate-fed Medicago truncatula plants. High ammonium resulted in the accumulation of ammonium and pathway intermediates, particularly glutamine, arginine, ornithine, and putrescine. Arginine decarboxylase activity was decreased in roots, suggesting that the ornithine decarboxylase-dependent production of putrescine was important in situations of ammonium stress. The activity of copper amine oxidase, which releases ammonium from putrescine, was significantly decreased in both shoots and roots. In addition, physiological concentrations of ammonium inhibited copper amine oxidase activity in in vitro assays, supporting the conclusion that high ammonium accumulation favors putrescine synthesis. Moreover, early supplementation of plants with putrescine avoided ammonium toxicity. The levels of transcripts encoding urea-cycle-related proteins were increased and transcripts involved in polyamine catabolism were decreased under high ammonium concentrations. We conclude that the urea cycle and associated polyamine metabolism function as important protective mechanisms limiting ammonium toxicity in M. truncatula. These findings demonstrate the relevance of the urea cycle to polyamine metabolism in higher plants.

Extraction of Phenolic Compounds from Populus Salicaceae Bark.

Lignocellulosic residues have the potential for obtaining high value-added products that could be better valorized if biorefinery strategies are adopted. The debarking of short-rotation crops yields important amounts of residues that are currently underexploited as low-grade fuel and could be a renewable source of phenolic compounds and other important phytochemicals. The isolation of these compounds can be carried out by different methods, but for attaining an integral valorization of barks, a preliminary extraction step for phytochemicals should be included. Using optimized extraction methods based on Soxhlet extraction can be effective for the isolation of phenolic compounds with antioxidant properties. In this study, poplar bark (Populus Salicaceae) was used to obtain a series of extracts using five different solvents in a sequential extraction of 24 h each in a Soxhlet extractor. Selected solvents were put in contact with the bark sample raffinate following an increasing order of polarity: n-hexane, dichloromethane, ethyl acetate, methanol, and water. The oily residues of the extracts obtained after each extraction were further subjected to flash chromatography, and the fractions obtained were characterized by gas chromatography coupled with mass spectrometry (GC-MS). The total phenolic content (TPC) was determined using the Folin-Ciocalteu method, and the antioxidant activity (AOA) of the samples was evaluated in their reaction with the free radical 2,2-Diphenyl-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH method). Polar solvents allowed for higher individual extraction yields, with overall extraction yields at around 23% (dry, ash-free basis). Different compounds were identified, including hydrolyzable tannins, phenolic monomers such as catechol and vanillin, pentoses and hexoses, and other organic compounds such as long-chain alkanes, alcohols, and carboxylic acids, among others. An excellent correlation was found between TPC and antioxidant activity for the samples analyzed. The fractions obtained using methanol showed the highest phenolic content (608 µg of gallic acid equivalent (GAE)/mg) and the greatest antioxidant activity.

Evaluation of the Thermal Stability of a Vaccine Prototype Based on Virus-like Particle Formulated HIV-1 Envelope.

The long-term storage stability of vaccines has a major impact on the roll-out and success of global immunization programs. For the Human Immunodeficiency Virus type 1 (HIV-1) virus-like particle (VLP) vaccine prototype evaluated here, nanoparticle tracking analysis (NTA), and enzyme-linked immunoabsorbent assay (ELISA) results demonstrated a remarkable structural stability. VLPs maintained their integrity and the recognition of relevant B-cell epitopes for three months at 4 and -20 °C. Interestingly, most particles remained intact and preserved the recognition of relevant epitopes even after a week of storage at room temperature.

Potent Induction of Envelope-Specific Antibody Responses by Virus-Like Particle Immunogens Based on HIV-1 Envelopes from Patients with Early Broadly Neutralizing Responses.

Longitudinal studies in HIV-1-infected individuals have indicated that 2 to 3 years of infection are required to develop broadly neutralizing antibodies. However, we have previously identified individuals with broadly neutralizing activity (bNA) in early HIV-1 infection, indicating that a vaccine may be capable of bNA induction after short periods of antigen exposure. Here, we describe 5 HIV-1 envelope sequences from individuals who have developed bNA within the first 100 days of infection (early neutralizers) and selected two of them to design immunogens based on HIV-1-Gag virus-like particles (VLPs). These VLPs were homogeneous and incorporated the corresponding envelopes (7 to 9 µg of gp120 in 1010 VLPs). Both envelopes (Envs) bound to well-characterized broadly neutralizing antibodies (bNAbs), including trimer-specific antibodies (PGT145, VRC01, and 35022). For immunogenicity testing, we immunized rabbits with the Env-VLPs or with the corresponding stabilized soluble envelope trimers. A short immunization protocol (105 days) was used to recapitulate the early nAb induction observed after HIV-1 infection in these two individuals. All VLP and trimeric envelope immunogens induced a comparably strong anti-gp120 response despite having immunized rabbits with 30 times less gp120 in the case of the Env-VLPs. In addition, animals immunized with VLP-formulated Envs induced antibodies that cross-recognized the corresponding soluble stabilized trimer and vice versa, even though no neutralizing activity was observed. Nevertheless, our data may provide a new platform of immunogens, based on HIV-1 envelopes from patients with early broadly neutralizing responses, with the potential to generate protective immune responses using vaccination protocols similar to those used in classical preventive vaccines. IMPORTANCE It is generally accepted that an effective HIV-1 vaccine should be able to induce broad-spectrum neutralizing antibodies. Since most of these antibodies require long periods of somatic maturation in vivo, several groups are developing immunogens, based on the HIV envelope protein, that require complex and lengthy immunization protocols that would be difficult to implement in the general population. Here, we show that rabbits immunized with new envelopes (VLP formulated) from two individuals who demonstrated broadly neutralizing activity very early after infection induced specific HIV-1 antibodies after a short immunization protocol. This evidence provides the basis for generating protective immune responses with classic vaccination protocols with vaccine prototypes based on HIV envelope sequences from individuals who have developed early broadly neutralizing responses.

Los términos corpus rubrum, corpus luteum y corpus albicans en terminologia anatomica del ovario / The terms rubrum, luteum and albicans in terminologia anatomica of the ovary

RESUMEN: El objetivo del presente artículo fue revisar la etimología de los términos Corpus rubrum, Corpus luteum y Corpus albicans, identificar si la forma de nombrarlos en las diferentes nóminas y terminologías internacionales están acorde a las sugerencias de la FIPAT y, analizar y reflexionar respecto de la pertinencia de estos términos en la Terminologia Anatomica. Se buscó en primer lugar el significado de las raíces latinas de los términos: Corpus rubrum, Corpus luteum y Corpus albicans, en el Diccionario de la Real Academia de la Lengua, última actualización; en el Diccionario Términos Médicos de la Real Academia Nacional de Medicina en España y en el Diccionario Vox, Español Latín. Indagamos en la historia para conocer desde cuando se utilizan estos términos, así como la revisión de las diferentes nomenclaturas, nóminas y terminologías anatómicas, histológicas y embriológicas, desde 1955 hasta la fecha. La búsqueda reportó que estos adjetivos latinos deberían traducirse al español de la siguiente manera: rubrum como rojo; luteum como amarillo y albicans como albicante que significa blanquear, por lo que la traducción correcta debiera ser: Cuerpo rojo, Cuerpo amarillo y Cuerpo albicante o blanco del ovario, estructuras transitorias y funcionales. Los términos Corpus rubrum, Corpus luteum y Corpus albicans que identifican estructuras del ovario en Terminologia Anatomica y Terminologia Histologica deberían ser revisados, puesto que son estructuras transitorias y su nombre sólo indica el color que adquieren en el momento funcional y es referente a los cambios que presenta la misma estructura.

SUMMARY: The aim of this article was to review the etymology of the terms Corpus rubrum, Corpus luteum and Corpus albicans, to identify if the way of naming them in the different lists and international terminologies are in accordance with the FIPAT suggestions and to analyze and reflect on the relevance of these terms in the Terminologia Anatomica. Firstly, the meaning of the Latin roots of the terms: Corpus rubrum, Corpus luteum and Corpus albicans were searched in the dictionaries: of the Royal Academy of Language, latest update; of the Medical Terms of the Royal National Academy of Medicine in Spain; in the Vox dictionary, Spanish Latin. Then we investigate the history to know since when these terms are used, as well as the review of the different anatomical, histological and embryological lists and terminologies from 1955 to date. The search reported that these Latin adjectives should be translated as follows: rubrum as red; luteum as yellow and albicans as albicante which means to whiten, therefore, the correct translation should be: Red body, Yellow body and Albicans or white body of the ovary, they are also transitory and functional structures. The terms Corpus rubrum, Corpus luteum and Corpus albicans that identify ovarian structures in the Terminologia Anatomica and Terminologia Histologica should be reviewed since they are transitory structures and their name only indicates the color they acquire at the functional moment and refers to the changes that the same structure presents.

Estado nutricional de la mujer embarazada y su relación con las complicaciones de la gestación y el recién nacido / Nutrition status of pregnant women and its relationship with complications of pregnancy and the newborn

RESUMEN: El estado nutricional materno determina las condiciones de salud y nutricionales del recién nacido, así como las complicaciones durante el embarazo y el parto. Se realizó el estudio en 894 mujeres que tuvieron su parto en los Hospitales de la ciudad de Loja Ecuador durante el periodo enero - junio del 2019. Se determinó la antropometría de la madre y de su hijo, así como se tomó datos de complicaciones durante el embarazo y el parto, de su historia clínica. Además, se efectuó la correlación entre el estado nutricional pre-gestacional de la madre con el recién nacido, de igual forma con el estado de salud de la madre. El objetivo de este trabajo fue determinar el estado nutricional pre-gestacional y su relación con la condición de salud y nutricional del niño. El IMC pre-gestacional reportó 47,3 % de sobrepeso y obesidad y 2,6 % de bajo peso. En un porcentaje mayor al 10 % las madres con sobrepeso y obesidad tuvieron hijos grandes para la edad gestacional, de igual forma las madres con bajo peso tuvieron el 26,1 % recién nacidos pequeños. Las principales complicaciones de las madres relacionadas con sobrepeso y obesidad fueron: diabetes gestacional, hemorragia postparto y pre-eclampsia durante el embrazo. Importante señalar la alta frecuencia de infecciones de las vías urinarias 53,9 % (478); y vaginitis 22,3 % (199); aunque estas no están directamente relacionadas con procesos metabólicos como etiología, más si están favorecidos por ellos. Durante el parto la complicación más frecuente fue el parto distócico con un 8,9 % (77), además del total de partos el 41,8 % (374) terminaron en cesárea, de estos el 51, 6 % (193) corresponden a sobrepeso y obesidad. Las complicaciones del recién nacido fueron: Síndrome de dificultad respiratoria aguda, asfixia neonatal e hipoglicemia. En conclusión, el estado nutricional pre-gestacional de la madre está relacionado directamente con el estado de salud y nutricional del recién nacido.

SUMMARY: The maternal nutritional status determines the health and nutritional conditions of the newborn, as well as complications during pregnancy and childbirth. The study was carried out in 894 women who had their delivery in the Hospitals of the city of Loja Ecuador during the period January - June 2019. The anthropometry of the mother and her child was determined, as well as data on complications during pregnancy and delivery, from their clinical history. In addition, the correlation was made between the pre-gestational nutritional status of the mother with the newborn, in the same way with the health status of the mother. The objective of this work was to determine the pre-gestational nutritional status and its relationship with the health and nutritional condition of the child. The pre-gestational BMI reported 47.3 % overweight and obesity and 2.6 % underweight. In a percentage higher than 10 %, mothers with overweight and obesity had large children for gestational age, in the same way, mothers with low weight had 26.1 % small newborns. The main complications of the mothers related to overweight and obesity were: gestational diabe- tes, postpartum hemorrhage and pre-eclampsia during pregnancy. It is important to note the high frequency of urinary tract infections 53.9% (478); and vaginitis 22.3% (199; although these are not directly related to metabolic processes such as etiology, more if they are favored by them. During delivery, the most frequent complication was dystocic delivery with 8.9 % (77), in addition to the total deliveries 42.5 % (374) that ended in cesarean section, of which 51.6 % (193) correspond to overweight and obesity. The complications of the newborn were: Acute respiratory distress syndrome, neonatal asphyxia and hypoglycemia. In conclusion, the pre-gestational nutritional status of the mother is directly related to the health and nutritional status of the newborn.

Digital Pathology Enables Automated and Quantitative Assessment of Inflammatory Activity in Patients with Chronic Liver Disease.

Traditional histological evaluation for grading liver disease severity is based on subjective and semi-quantitative scores. We examined the relationship between digital pathology analysis and corresponding scoring systems for the assessment of hepatic necroinflammatory activity. A prospective, multicenter study including 156 patients with chronic liver disease (74% nonalcoholic fatty liver disease-NAFLD, 26% chronic hepatitis-CH etiologies) was performed. Inflammation was graded according to the Nonalcoholic Steatohepatitis (NASH) Clinical Research Network system and METAVIR score. Whole-slide digital image analysis based on quantitative (I-score: inflammation ratio) and morphometric (C-score: proportionate area of staining intensities clusters) measurements were independently performed. Our data show that I-scores and C-scores increase with inflammation grades (p < 0.001). High correlation was seen for CH (ρ = 0.85-0.88), but only moderate for NAFLD (ρ = 0.5-0.53). I-score (p = 0.008) and C-score (p = 0.002) were higher for CH than NAFLD. Our MATLAB algorithm performed better than QuPath software for the diagnosis of low-moderate inflammation (p < 0.05). C-score AUC for classifying NASH was 0.75 (95%CI, 0.65-0.84) and for moderate/severe CH was 0.99 (95%CI, 0.97-1.00). Digital pathology measurements increased with fibrosis stages (p < 0.001). In conclusion, quantitative and morphometric metrics of inflammatory burden obtained by digital pathology correlate well with pathologists' scores, showing a higher accuracy for the evaluation of CH than NAFLD.

Endoscopic submucosal dissection with an SB Knife® for the treatment of subcardial gastric leiomyoma.

Surgery has been considered the main treatment for submucosal tumors (SMTs). However, endoscopic resection is currently accepted for gastric SMTs smaller than 3 cm. Endoscopic submucosal dissection (ESD) is considered the technique of choice, and submucosal tunneling endoscopic resection has successful results with low complication rates according to the recent meta-analysis by Cao et al. The major limitation of these methods is the technical difficulty associated with certain anatomic locations.

El término cuerpo amigdaloide en la terminología médica / The term amygdaloid body in medical terminology

RESUMEN: En terminología médica el término amígdala cerebral es utilizado para denominar a la estructura que según la Terminologia Neuroanatomica y Terminologia Anatomica se conoce como cuerpo amigadaloide, la cual está constituida por diversos núcleos y es responsable de las emociones, el comportamiento, regulación de la ansiedad, la agresión, el miedo, la memoria emocional, la cognición social y las respuestas al estrés. Siendo la amígdala cerebral una estructura tan importante el objetivo de este estudio fue: analizar el significado del término amígdala cerebral en la Terminologia Neuronatomica y en la Terminologia Anatomica y contrastar si el origen de sus raíces greco latinas concuerdan con la función de esta estructura acorde con los requerimientos de la FIPAT. Para ello se consultó los diccionarios de la Lengua Española, Diccionario DGE Griego Español, Diccionario VOX Griego Español, Diccionario Médico, Biológico, Histológico y Etimológico de la Universidad de Salamanca y Diccionario de Términos Médicos de la Real Academia Nacional de Medicina, así como algunos artículos y libros clásicos de anatomía. Los resultados indicaron que el término amígdala tiene el mismo significado en griego como en latín, en donde ἀμυγδαλέα, ἀμυγδαλέας (pr. amygdaléa, amygdaléas) es el árbol del almedro y ἀμυγδάλη, ἀμυγδάλης (pr. amygdále, amygdáles) significa almendra. Conociendo tanto la anatomía como la fisiología de esta estructura su forma no se asemeja a la de una almendra y su denominación actual no está acorde con los requerimientos de la FIPAT por lo cual consideramos que esta debe ser revisada.

SUMMARY: In medical terminology the term brain amygdala is used to refer to the structure that according to the Terminologia Neuroanatomica and Terminologia Anatomica is known as the amydaloid body, which is made up of various nuclei and is responsible for emotions, behavior, regulation of the anxiety, aggression, fear, emotional memory, social cognition, and responses to stress. Being the cerebral amygdala such an important structure, the objective of this study was: to analyze the meaning of the term cerebral amygdala in Terminologia Neuroanatomica and in Terminologia Anatomica and to contrast if the origin of its Greek Latin roots agrees with the function of this structure according to the requirements of the FIPAT. For this, the dictionaries of the Royal Spanish Academy, the DGE Greek Spanish Dictionary, the VOX Greek Spanish Dictionary, the Medical, Biological, Histological and Etymological Dictionary of the University of Salamanca, the Dictionary of the Royal National Academy of Medicine, as well as some articles and classic books of anatomy. The results indicated that the term amygdala has the same meaning in Greek as in Latin, where? ἀμυγδαλέα, ἀμυγδαλέας (pr. Amygdaléa, amygdaléas) is the almond tree andἀμυγδάλη, ἀμυγδάλης (pr. amygdále, amygdáles) means almond. Knowing both the anatomy and the physiology of this structure, its shape does not resemble that of an almond and its current name is not in accordance with the requirements of the FIPAT, for which we consider that it should be revised.

Uso del lexema δερµα (derma) en terminologia embryologica / Use of the lexeme δερµα (derm) in terminologia embryologica

Al lexema δερµα (derma) que proviene de las raíces griegas δέρ-µα/µατος se lo define como piel, pellejo, cuero, odre (Cortez, 2011). Lo encontramos en los términos ectodermo, mesodermo y endodermo, utilizados para describir las estructuras durante la tercera semana del desarrollo embriológico humano. Se consultó el significado y sus raíces en el diccionario Manuel Griego clásico-Español Vox (Pabón, 1967) y Diccionario Médico-Biológico, Histórico y Etimológico (DICCIOMED) de la Universidad de Salamanca (Cortez); de igual manera se investigó la utilización de los términos ectodermo, mesodermo y endodermo en la Terminologia Embryologica (FIPAT, 2013) y en su última versión (FIPAT, 2017). La búsqueda reportó que estos términos están compuestos por dos raíces griegas el sufijo δέρµα (derma) presente en los tres términos; más los prefijos ἐκτός que significa externo; µÎ­σος definido como medio y ἐνδο cuyo significado es dentro. Estos tres tejidos se derivan a la vez del epiblasto que viene de dos raíces griegas ἐπί- ep(í) que significa sobre + ßλαστός - blast(o) que se traduce como germen, retoño, forma celular inmadura; y del hipoblasto que cuyo término se forma de las raíces griegas ὑπό (hypó) que significa 'debajo de' + ßλαστός - blast(o). Podemos señalar que el mejor término para denominar a estas tres estructuras debiera ser ßλαστός (blasto); y por lo tanto, se deberían denominar a estas tres estructuras como ectoblasto, mesoblasto y endoblasto; debido a que son células o tejidos inmaduros, transitorios y no tejidos definitivos como es la piel; lo cual a su vez se corresponde con los objetivos determinados por la FIPAT.

The lexeme δέρ-µα (derma) that comes from the Greek δέρ-µα/µατος is defined as skin, hide, leather, wineskin (Cortez, 2011). We find it in the term ectoderm, mesoderm and endoderm, used to describe the structures during the third week of human embryological development. The meaning and its roots were consulted in the Manuel Greek-Spanish Vox dictionary (Pabón, 1967) and Medical-Biological, Historical and Etymological Dictionary (DICCIOMED) of the University of Salamanca (Cortez); the same way, the use of the terms ectoderm, mesoderm and endoderm was investigated in Terminologia Embryologica (FIPAT, 2013) and in its latest version Terminologia Embryologica (FIPAT, 2017). The search reported that these terms are composed of two Greek roots, the suffix δέρµα (derma) present in the three terms; plus the prefixes ἐκτός which means external; µÎ­σος defined as medium and ἐνδο whose meaning is within. These three tissues are derived in turn from the epiblast that comes from two Greek roots ἐπί- ep (í) which means over + ßλαστός - blast (o) which translates as germ, shoot, immature cell form; and from the hypoblast whose term is formed from the Greek roots ὑπό (hypó) meaning 'under' + ßλαστός - blast (o). We can say that the best term to name these three structures should be ßλαστός (blast); and therefore, these three structures should be named as ectoblast, mesoblast and endoblast; because they are immature, transitory cells or tissues and definitive non-tissues such as the skin; which in turn corresponds to the objectives determined by FIPAT.

Prevalence of Enteropathogens and Virulence Traits in Brazilian Children With and Without Diarrhea.

The use of molecular diagnostics for pathogen detection in epidemiological studies have allowed us to get a wider view of the pathogens associated with diarrhea, but the presence of enteropathogens in asymptomatic individuals has raised several challenges in understanding the etiology of diarrhea, and the use of these platforms in clinical diagnosis as well. To characterize the presence of the most relevant bacterial enteropathogens in diarrheal episodes, we evaluated here the prevalence of diarrheagenic E. coli pathotypes, Salmonella spp., and Yersinia enterocolitica in stool samples of children with and without diarrhea using real-time quantitative PCR (qPCR). We found that the presence of genetic markers associated with bacterial pathogens was significantly higher in stool samples from the diarrhea group compared to the control (P < 0.001). Bacterial loads in samples positive for eae and aggR markers were also determined. Compared to samples from asymptomatic children, a significantly higher number of copies of the eae gene were found in diarrhea samples. Also, the presence of genetic markers associated with STEC strains with clinical significance was evaluated in eae-positive samples by high-throughput real-time PCR. The data presented herein demonstrated that asymptomatic children of an urban area in Brazil might be enteropathogen reservoirs, especially for STEC.

Production of Aromatic Compounds by Catalytic Depolymerization of Technical and Downstream Biorefinery Lignins.

Lignocellulosic materials are promising alternatives to non-renewable fossil sources when producing aromatic compounds. Lignins from Populus salicaceae. Pinus radiata and Pinus pinaster from industrial wastes and biorefinery effluents were isolated and characterized. Lignin was depolymerized using homogenous (NaOH) and heterogeneous (Ni-, Cu- or Ni-Cu-hydrotalcites) base catalysis and catalytic hydrogenolysis using Ru/C. When homogeneous base catalyzed depolymerization (BCD) and Ru/C hydrogenolysis were combined on poplar lignin, the aromatics amount was ca. 11 wt.%. Monomer distributions changed depending on the feedstock and the reaction conditions. Aqueous NaOH produced cleavage of the alkyl side chain that was preserved when using modified hydrotalcite catalysts or Ru/C-catalyzed hydrogenolysis in ethanol. Depolymerization using hydrotalcite catalysts in ethanol produced monomers bearing carbonyl groups on the alkyl side chain. The analysis of the reaction mixtures was done by size exclusion chromatography (SEC) and diffusion ordered nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy (DOSY NMR). 31P NMR and heteronuclear single quantum coherence spectroscopy (HSQC) were also used in this study. The content in poly-(hydroxy)-aromatic ethers in the reaction mixtures decreased upon thermal treatments in ethanol. It was concluded that thermo-solvolysis is key in lignin depolymerization, and that the synergistic effect of Ni and Cu provided monomers with oxidized alkyl side chains.

Permanent control of HIV-1 pathogenesis in exceptional elite controllers: a model of spontaneous cure.

Elite controllers (EC) represent a small subset of HIV-1-infected people that spontaneously control viral replication. However, natural virological suppression and absence of immune dysfunction are not always long-term sustained. We define exceptional EC (EEC) as HIV-1 subjects who maintain the EC characteristics without disease progression for more than 25 years. We analyzed three EEC, diagnosed between 1988 and 1992, who never showed signs of clinical disease progression in absence of any antiretroviral treatment. A comprehensive clinical, virological, and immunological study was performed. The individuals simultaneously exhibited ≥3 described host protective alleles, low levels of total HIV-1 DNA (<20 copies/106 CD4+ T-cells) without evidence of replication-competent viruses (<0.025 IUPM), consistent with high levels of defective genomes, strong cellular HIV-1-specific immune response, and a high poly-functionality index (>0.50). Inflammation levels of EEC were similar to HIV-1 negative donors. Remarkably, they showed an exceptional lack of viral evolution and 8-fold lower genetic diversity (<0.01 s/n) in env gene than other EC. We postulate that these EEC represent cases of spontaneous functional HIV-1 cure. A non-functional and non-genetically evolving viral reservoir along with an HIV-1-specific immune response seems to be key for the spontaneous functional cure.

Prevalence of enteropathogens and virulence traits in Brazilian children with and without diarrhea

The use of molecular diagnostics for pathogen detection in epidemiological studies have allowed us to get a wider view of the pathogens associated with diarrhea, but the presence of enteropathogens in asymptomatic individuals has raised several challenges in understanding the etiology of diarrhea, and the use of these platforms in clinical diagnosis as well. To characterize the presence of the most relevant bacterial enteropathogens in diarrheal episodes, we evaluated here the prevalence of diarrheagenic E. coli pathotypes, Salmonella spp., and Yersinia enterocolitica in stool samples of children with and without diarrhea using real-time quantitative PCR (qPCR). We found that the presence of genetic markers associated with bacterial pathogens was significantly higher in stool samples from the diarrhea group compared to the control (P < 0.001). Bacterial loads in samples positive for eae and aggR markers were also determined. Compared to samples from asymptomatic children, a significantly higher number of copies of the eae gene were found in diarrhea samples. Also, the presence of genetic markers associated with STEC strains with clinical significance was evaluated in eae-positive samples by high-throughput real-time PCR. The data presented herein demonstrated that asymptomatic children of an urban area in Brazil might be enteropathogen reservoirs, especially for STEC.

IAOx induces the SUR phenotype and differential signalling from IAA under different types of nitrogen nutrition in Medicago truncatula roots.

Indole-3-acetaldoxime (IAOx) is a particularly relevant molecule as an intermediate in the pathway for tryptophan-dependent auxin biosynthesis. The role of IAOx in growth-signalling and root phenotype is poorly studied in cruciferous plants and mostly unknown in non-cruciferous plants. We synthesized IAOx and applied it to M. truncatula plants grown axenically with NO3-, NH4+ or urea as the sole nitrogen source. During 14 days of growth, we demonstrated that IAOx induced an increase in the number of lateral roots, especially under NH4+ nutrition, while elongation of the main root was inhibited. This phenotype is similar to the phenotype known as "superroot" previously described in SUR1- and SUR2-defective Arabidopsis mutants. The effect of IAOx, IAA or the combination of both on the root phenotype was different and dependent on the type of N-nutrition. Our results also showed the endogenous importance of IAOx in a legume plant in relation to IAA metabolism, and suggested IAOx long-distance transport depending on the nitrogen source provided. Finally, our results point out to CYP71A as the major responsible enzymes for IAA synthesis from IAOx, while they exclude indole-3-acetaldehyde oxidases.

Pretreatment and enzymatic hydrolysis for the efficient production of glucose and furfural from wheat straw, pine and poplar chips.

A flexible approach to a two-step Biorefinery for the production of glucose and furfural from three different feedstocks is presented. Pretreatment conditions were selected to drive the production towards the generation of glucose or furfural. Harsh pretreatment conditions produced solids with highly accessible glycan contents for the enzymatic hydrolysis with 100% glucose yields when wheat straw or poplar chips were used as feedstock. Mild conditions afforded xylan-rich hydrolysates that could be efficiently transformed to furfural, either under conventional or microwave heating in biphasic media. Yields for the transformation of xylan from feedstocks ranged between 45% and 90% depending on the feedstock, the thermal pretreatment and the cyclodehydration conditions. Up to 12.6 kg of glucose and materials and 2.5 kg of furfural can be produced starting from 50 kg of biomass. A new analytical methodology based on 13C NMR that provided good quality analytical results is also presented.

Synthesis and Leishmanicidal Activity of Novel Urea, Thiourea, and Selenourea Derivatives of Diselenides.

A novel series of thirty-one N-substituted urea, thiourea, and selenourea derivatives containing diphenyldiselenide entities were synthesized, fully characterized by spectroscopic and analytical methods, and screened for their in vitro leishmanicidal activities. The cytotoxic activity of these derivatives was tested against Leishmania infantum axenic amastigotes, and selectivity was assessed in human THP-1 cells. Thirteen of the synthesized compounds showed a significant antileishmanial activity, with 50% effective concentration (EC50) values lower than that for the reference drug miltefosine (EC50, 2.84 µM). In addition, the derivatives 9, 11, 42, and 47, with EC50 between 1.1 and 1.95 µM, also displayed excellent selectivity (selectivity index ranged from 12.4 to 22.7) and were tested against infected macrophages. Compound 11, a derivative with a cyclohexyl chain, exhibited the highest activity against intracellular amastigotes, with EC50 values similar to those observed for the standard drug edelfosine. Structure-activity relationship analyses revealed that N-aliphatic substitution in urea and selenourea is recommended for the leishmanicidal activity of these analogs. Preliminary studies of the mechanism of action for the hit compounds was carried out by measuring their ability to inhibit trypanothione reductase. Even though the obtained results suggest that this enzyme is not the target for most of these derivatives, their activity comparable to that of the standards and lack of toxicity in THP-1 cells highlight the potential of these compounds to be optimized for leishmaniasis treatment.