Treating patients with cancer amidst the COVID-19 pandemic: experience of a regional hospital in the Piedmont region in northern Italy.

BACKGROUND: The coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic is posing an unprecedented dilemma to oncologists worldwide, forcing them to decide whether to continue or suspend treatments in order to protect their most vulnerable patients from infection. After the first report from China, the outbreak spread rapidly worldwide. To, date no clear indications on how to treat patients with cancer with COVID-19 infection are available. METHODS: We report data on 21 patients with cancer referred to a single medical oncology unit of a general hospital from mid-March to April 23, 2020. RESULTS: Nine patients were on active cancer therapy during the infection and all stopped medical treatments. Overall 8 patients developed pneumonia and 6 patients died of COVID-19. CONCLUSION: The management of patients with cancer during the pandemic should be carefully balanced and discussed among oncologists and other key professionals involved in the treatment of this vulnerable group of patients, in order to balance the risk of treatment and the risk of infection.

Immune escape mechanisms in head and neck squamous cell carcinoma and implication for new immunotherapy approach.

PURPOSE OF REVIEW: The aim of this review is to describe the major steps leading to the immunosuppressive tumor microenvironment and to summarize some of the new immunotherapies that interfere with these mechanisms. RECENT FINDINGS: Immunotherapy has improved the outcome of relapsed/metastatic head and neck squamous cell carcinoma (HNSCC). However, most patients still do not respond to treatment and median overall survival remains short with a modest rate of long-term survivors. There is a growing awareness that tumor immune-escape is a complex process that involves many redundant mechanisms other than immune check-points. They interfere with the innate immune response, activation of adaptive immune response, homing of effector T cells, their clonal expansion, viability, and efficiency. This abundance of immunosuppressive mechanisms explains the limited results achieved by immune checkpoint inhibitors. Combined treatments targeting different mechanisms of escape are in development to further improve the outcome of patients with HNSCC. SUMMARY: Many mechanisms favor tumor immune-escape. Each tumor exploits preferably some of them and the challenge is to understand which are the best targets in each tumor. This knowledge is an important tool to design future combination strategies based on strong biological rationales, which could offer better results than simple empirical combinations.

Melanoma: the new perspectives from clinical and translational research.

The prognosis of metastatic melanoma has not changed throughout the 20th century. However, in the last decade, we have witnessed a continuous improvement in survival, with many long-term survivors. These results are largely because of the simultaneous development of the knowledge in the biology of metastatic malignant melanoma and of the relationship between the disease and the host's immune system that allowed the development of effective new treatments. In this overview, we summarize the therapies available today, their biological rationale, and the research field currently under investigation divided into three main chapters: target therapies, immunotherapies, and their combination.

Activation of immune responses in patients with relapsed-metastatic head and neck cancer (CONFRONT phase I-II trial): Multimodality immunotherapy with avelumab, short-course radiotherapy, and cyclophosphamide.

INTRODUCTION AND BACKGROUND: Second-line treatment of platinum-resistant relapsed/metastatic (R/M) head and neck cancer (HNC) is a currently unmet clinical need. Clinical trials showed improvement in overall survival and quality of life of R/M-HNC patients treated with anti-PD-1 regardless of the number of prior chemotherapy lines; however, the percentage of long-term survivors remains limited.This study aims to test the hypothesis that attacking the tumor microenvironment at multiple levels can increase immunogenicity of R/M-HNC without worsening the safety profile of immune checkpoint inhibitors. METHODS/DESIGN: In this open label, multi-center, single-arm, Phase Ib/II, R/M-HNC patients pretreated with at least one line of therapy containing platinum, fluorouracil, and cetuximab will receive a daily metronomic dose of 50 mg cyclophosphamide without a drug-free break, 10 mg/kg avelumab on day 1 and every other week until progression, and a single fraction of 8 Gy radiotherapy on day 8. DISCUSSION: The treatment protocol aims to reverse immune evasion of the tumor through a radiotherapy-induced self-vaccination effect, suppression of CD4+ CD25+ FoxP3+ regulatory T-cell function by metronomic cyclophosphamide, and effector T-cell reactivation owing to the inhibition of the PD-1-PD-L1 axis by avelumab.The immunologic interplay induced by the proposed combined treatment may theoretically improve the activity of avelumab without increasing its toxicity profile.Finally, an ancillary translational study will be extended to all the patients' population. TRIAL REGISTRATION: EudraCT n. 2017-000353-39.

Eribulin in advanced breast cancer: safety, efficacy and new perspectives.

Eribulin is a synthetic analog of halichondrin B belonging to microtubule-targeted agents with a distinct mechanism of inhibition of microtubule dynamics. This molecule has multiple nonmitotic effects on tumor biology, exhibiting effects on epithelial-mesenchimal transition and tumor vasculature. We review here preclinical and clinical studies on eribulin. The mitotic and nonmitotic effects together with its favorable safety profile make eribulin a unique drug with high potential in the treatment of metastatic breast cancer. The new emphasis of eribulin mechanism of action on vascular remodeling, microenvironment modifications and reversal of epithelial-mesenchimal transition paves the way to rethinking the use of the drug in an immunological perspective.

Heterogeneity of colon cancer: from bench to bedside.

The large bowel shows biomolecular, anatomical and bacterial changes that proceed from the proximal to the distal tract. These changes account for the different behaviour of colon cancers arising from the diverse sides of the colon-rectum as well as for the sensitivity to the therapy, including immunotherapy. The gut microbiota plays an important role in the modulation of the immune response and differs between the right colon cancer and the left colorectal cancer. The qualitative and quantitative difference of the commensal bacteria between the right side and the left side induces epigenetic changes in the intestinal epithelial cells as well as in the resident immune population. The second player in the pathological homeostasis of colorectal cancer is the differences of the genetic features of cancer cells and the different effects that microsatellite instability, chromosomal instability and the CpG island methylator phenotype induce on the immunological organisation of the tumour microenvironment. The third player is the immunological composition of the tumour microenvironment, which changes under the influence of both genetic structures and gut microbiota. All these three players influence each other. This review describes these three aspects, highlights their interactions and discusses data from reported clinical trials.

Prognostic and predictive biomarkers in metastatic colorectal cancer anti-EGFR therapy.

AIM: To reviewing genetic and epigenetic make-up of metastatic colorectal cancers (mCRCs) addicted to epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR) signalling. METHODS: The present study summarizes the potential value of prognostic and predictive biomarkers in selecting mCRC patients treated with anti-EGFR therapy. A meta-analysis was performed using a systematic search of PubMed, Medline and Web of Science to identify eligible papers until March 21(st), 2016 using these following terms: ''colorectal cancer'', "predictive biomarkers'', "anti-EGFR therapy", "KRAS", "NRAS'', "PIK3CA", "TP53", "PTEN", ''EGFR", "MET", "HER2", "epiregulin", "amphiregulin", "prognostic biomarkers", "BRAF", "miRNA" and "antibody-dependent cell-mediated cytotoxicity (ADCC) activity". Two investigators independently evaluated and extracted data from each identified studies based on selected criteria of inclusion and exclusion. RESULTS: The introduction of agents targeting EGFR such as cetuximab and panitumumab increased overall survival of mCRCs. Nevertheless, it has firstly became evident that response rates to cetuximab regimens in unselected patient populations were typically lower than 30%. Clinical data confirmed the predictive value of RAS mutations for resistance to cetuximab and panitumumab leading to the license of these monoclonal antibodies exclusively for the management of patients with RAS-wild type colorectal cancers. So far the identification of predictive biomarkers have generated interesting, though preliminary and, at times, conflicting data on the importance of tumour mRNA levels of EGFR ligands, of activating mutations in other genes such as NRAS and PIK3CA. The prognostic value of selected microRNAs level and ADCC activity is under investigation, while the prognostic impact of BRAF status remains controversial. CONCLUSION: This review focuses on the personalized treatment of mCRC and discusses the potential of new prognostic and predictive biomarkers in selecting patients treated with anti-EGFR therapy.

E1 detection as prognosticator in human papillomavirus-positive head and neck cancers.

PURPOSE: HPV-related locally advanced head and neck cancers (LA-HNCs) show a good prognosis. This study aimed to investigate the HPV prevalence in LA-HNCs and compare the prognostic value of E1, E6 and L1 genomic viral fragments and p16, individually and in combination, in order to find the best prognosticator in terms of overall survival (OS) and progression-free survival (PFS). PATIENTS AND METHODS: HPV16 was searched in 255 LA-HNC formalin-fixed paraffin-embedded tumor tissues, 89 oropharyngeal cancers (OPCs), and 166 non-OPCs by DNA-PCR with 3 primer pairs. p16 was analyzed by immunohistochemistry in 235 patients. RESULTS: The prevalence of positive samples decreased constantly from E6 to L1 and E1 in both OPCs and non-OPCs. Each LA-HNC patient highlighted variable positivity for each fragment. OPCs showed a higher prevalence of positive samples compared to non-OPCs.Positive coexistence of all the fragments was more common in OPCs (31.5%) than non-OPCs (4.2%), and E1 detection was always associated with E6 and L1. E1-positive OPCs showed improved OS (p = 0.012) and PFS (p = 0.036), while L1- or E6-positive ones did not. p16-positive patients were more prevalent in the OPC (29.8%) than the non-OPC group (7.3%) (p<0.0001) and its prognostic value was not superior to that of E1. However, the multivariate Cox analysis which included E1, L1, E6 status and p16 expression did not show a significant p value. CONCLUSIONS: Though HPV16 positivity measured by DNA-PCR was higher for L1 and E6, they performed weakly as prognosticators; E1 might become a strong prognostic marker for OS and PFS in OPCs.

Management of Skin Reactions During Cetuximab Treatment in Association With Chemotherapy or Radiotherapy: Update of the Italian Expert Recommendations.

OBJECTIVES: Cetuximab was shown in phase III clinical trials to improve chemotherapy efficacy in patients with advanced colorectal and head-neck cancer. Appropriate management of skin reactions associated with epidermal growth factor receptor inhibitor therapy is necessary to allow adequate drug compliance and to improve patient quality of life and outcomes. METHODS: The RAND/UCLA Appropriateness Method was used by a group of experts to produce new Italian recommendations on the management of skin reactions in this setting. Statements were generated on the basis of an updated systematic review of the literature and rated twice by a panel of 38 expert physicians. A meeting of the panel was held after the first rating session. RESULTS: Skin reactions included acneiformic rash, skin dryness (xerosis), pruritus, paronychia, hair abnormalities, mucositis, and increased growth of eyelashes or facial hair. Updates of the previous recommendations on the prevention and treatment of each type of reaction were proposed. CONCLUSIONS: This updated Expert Opinion focuses on how to assess and correctly grade skin reactions according to the latest National Cancer Institute Common Terminology Criteria for Adverse Events and on how to manage these adverse events in clinical practice.

Gemcitabine-Based Chemoradiation in the Treatment of Locally Advanced Head and Neck Cancer: Systematic Review of Literature and Meta-Analysis.

BACKGROUND: Platinum-based concurrent chemoradiation (CCRT) improves locoregional control and overall survival of locoregionally advanced (LA) squamous cell carcinoma of the head and neck (SCCHN) when compared to radiotherapy alone, but this approach is hampered by significant toxicity. Therefore, alternative ways to enhance the radiation effects are worth investigating. Gemcitabine (2',2'-difluorodeoxycytidine), in addition to its activity against a variety of solid tumors, including SCCHN, is one of the most potent radiosensitizers, and it has an overall favorable safety profile. In this paper, the clinical experience with gemcitabine-based chemoradiation in the treatment of patients with LA-SCCHN is reviewed. METHODS: We conducted a review of the literature on the clinical experience with radiotherapy combined with either single-agent gemcitabine or gemcitabine/cisplatin-based polychemotherapy for the treatment of patients with LA-SCCHN. We also searched abstracts in databases of major international oncology meetings from the last 20 years. A meta-analysis was performed to calculate pooled proportions with 95% confidence intervals (CIs) for complete response rate and grade 3-4 acute mucositis rate. RESULTS: A total of 13 papers were eligible for the literature review. For schedules using a gemcitabine dose intensity (DI) below 50 mg/m(2) per week, the complete response rate was 86% (95% CI, 74%-93%) with grade 3-4 acute mucositis rate of 38% (95% CI, 27%-50%) and acceptable late toxicity. In one of the studies employing such low DIs, survival data were provided showing a 3-year overall survival of 50%. Compared with DI ≥50 mg/m(2) per week, there was no difference in the complete response rate (71%; 95% CI, 55%-83%; p = .087) but a significantly higher (p < .001) grade 3-4 acute mucositis rate of 74% (95% CI, 62%-83%), often leading to treatment interruptions (survival data provided in 8 studies; 3-year overall survival, 27%-63%). Late toxicity comprising mainly dysphagia was generally underreported, whereas information about xerostomia and skin fibrosis was scarce. CONCLUSION: This review highlights the radiosensitizing potential of gemcitabine and suggests that even very low dosages (less than 50 mg/m(2) per week) provide a sufficient therapeutic ratio and therefore should be further investigated. Refinements in radiation schemes, including intensity-modulated radiation therapy, in combination with low-dose gemcitabine and targeted agents, such as cetuximab, are currently being investigated. IMPLICATIONS FOR PRACTICE: Cisplatin-based concurrent chemoradiation (CCRT) has become the standard treatment of locally advanced head and neck cancer (LAHNC). This approach is hampered by significant toxicity. This paper reviews the studies using gemcitabine as an alternative radio-sensitizer for CCRT in patients with LAHNC. In this capacity, despite its mild intrinsic toxicity, gemcitabine comes with high rates of severe mucositis when used in dosages exceeding 50 mg/m(2) per week. CCRT with low-dose gemcitabine provides a sufficient therapeutic ratio, combining clinical activity, similar to the higher-dose regimens, with lower toxicity. Further investigation is warranted.

Dysphagia in head and neck cancer patients treated with radiotherapy and systemic therapies: Literature review and consensus.

BACKGROUND: Head and neck cancer (HNC) and its therapy are associated with acute and late swallowing dysfunction. Consensus guidelines regarding evaluation and management are lacking. To address this gap, a multidisciplinary team of experts (oncologists, practitioners, deglutologists, etc.) met in Milan 17-18 February 2013 with the aim of reaching a consensus on the management of swallowing difficulties in HNC patients treated with radiotherapy with or without systemic therapies (such as chemotherapy and targeted agents). The consensus was focused particularly on those statements with limited evidence. The results of the literature review and the statements that obtained a consensus are reported and discussed in this paper. MATERIALS AND METHODS: The Delphi Appropriateness Method was used for this consensus. External expert reviewers then evaluated the conclusions carefully according to their area of expertise. RESULTS: This paper contains 6 clusters of statements about the management of swallowing problems in radio-treated HNC patients and a review of the recent literature on these topics. CONCLUSIONS: Dysphagia assessment and its management are difficult and require a multi-team cooperation (ENT specialists, radiation and medical oncologists, deglutologists, etc.).

Acute skin toxicity management in head and neck cancer patients treated with radiotherapy and chemotherapy or EGFR inhibitors: Literature review and consensus.

The adverse effects of radiation therapy, often integrated with chemotherapy and/or targeted therapies, on the skin include severe acute and chronic dermatitis associated with pain, discomfort, itching, and burning, and may heavily affect patients' quality of life. The management of these skin adverse effects in head and neck cancer patients (HNCPs) are very heterogeneous due to the lack of shared rigorous classification systems and evidence based treatments. A multidisciplinary group of head and neck cancer specialists from Italy met with the aim of reaching a consensus on a clinical definition and management of dermatitis in HNCPs treated with radiotherapy with or without systemic therapies in order to improve skin toxicity management. The Delphi Appropriateness Method was used. External expert reviewers then evaluated the conclusions carefully according to their area of expertise. This paper offers contains seven clusters of statements about the management of dermatitis in HNCPs and a review of recent literature on these topics.

The effect of paclitaxel and nab-paclitaxel in combination with anti-angiogenic therapy in breast cancer cell lines.

Taxanes represent a treatment of choice for metastatic breast cancer. Their combination with bevacizumab improved response rate and progression-free survival. We studied in vitro the effect on cell survival of the combination of either paclitaxel or nab-paclitaxel with bevacizumab and we investigated the biological factors involved in the response to treatments. We used two breast cancer cell lines, MCF7 (ER+/HER2-) and MDA-MB-231 (ER-/HER2-), co-cultured with or without HUVEC cells. We analysed cell survival by MTT test, VEGF secretion by ELISA and VEGFR, SPARC, MDR1 expression by western blot. Doses of both taxanes causing a 50 % growth inhibition were higher in MCF7 than MDA-MB-231, suggesting that taxanes are more effective in ER- cell lines. When both cell lines were grown as single culture, the combination bevacizumab+paclitaxel showed a similar anti-proliferative effect compared to paclitaxel alone. The association bevacizumab+nab-paclitaxel was more effective than nab-paclitaxel alone. An increased anti-proliferative effect of bevacizumab+paclitaxel was observed when MDA-MB-231 cells were cultured with HUVEC. We detected an induction of VEGF secretion when MDA-MB-231 cells were treated with either taxanes. Paclitaxel caused a reduction of VEGF in MCF7. SPARC resulted up-regulated in both cell lines treated with bevacizumab+nab-paclitaxel. Nab-paclitaxel seems to play an important role in inhibiting tumor proliferation through albumin-SPARC bound in association with bevacizumab compared to taxanes alone in both breast cancer cells. The addition of bevacizumab to paclitaxel increased its activity only in ER- cells. This difference might be due to their ER status.

Sepsis in head and neck cancer patients treated with chemotherapy and radiation: Literature review and consensus.

The reporting of infection/sepsis in chemo/radiation-treated head and neck cancer patients is sparse and the problem is underestimated. A multidisciplinary group of head and neck cancer specialists from Italy met with the aim of reaching a consensus on a clinical definition and management of infections and sepsis. The Delphi appropriateness method was used for this consensus. External expert reviewers then evaluated the conclusions carefully according to their area of expertise. The paper contains seven clusters of statements about the clinical definition and management of infections and sepsis in head and neck cancer patients, which had a consensus. Furthermore, it offers a review of recent literature in these topics.

Chemoradiotherapy with or without panitumumab in patients with unresected, locally advanced squamous-cell carcinoma of the head and neck (CONCERT-1): a randomised, controlled, open-label phase 2 trial.

BACKGROUND: Panitumumab is a fully human monoclonal antibody that targets EGFR. We aimed to compare chemoradiotherapy plus panitumumab with chemoradiotherapy alone in patients with unresected, locally advanced squamous-cell carcinoma of the head and neck. METHODS: In this international, open-label, randomised, controlled, phase 2 trial, we recruited patients with locally advanced squamous-cell carcinoma of the head and neck from 41 sites in nine countries worldwide. Patients aged 18 years and older with stage III, IVa, or IVb, previously untreated, measurable (≥ 10 mm for at least one dimension), locally advanced squamous-cell carcinoma of the head and neck (non-nasopharygeal) and an Eastern Cooperative Oncology Group performance status of 0-1 were randomly assigned (2:3) by an independent vendor to open-label chemoradiotherapy (three cycles of cisplatin 100 mg/m(2)) or panitumumab plus chemoradiotherapy (three cycles of intravenous panitumumab 9.0 mg/kg every 3 weeks plus cisplatin 75 mg/m(2)) using stratified randomisation with a block size of five. All patients received 70 Gy to gross tumour and 50 Gy to areas at risk for subclinical disease with standard fractionation. The primary endpoint was local-regional control at 2 years, analysed in all randomised patients who received at least one dose of their assigned protocol-specific treatment (chemotherapy, radiation, or panitumumab). The trial is closed and this is the final analysis. This trial is registered with ClinicalTrials.gov, number NCT00500760. FINDINGS: Between Oct 26, 2007, and March 26, 2009, 153 patients were enrolled and 150 received treatment (63 in the chemoradiotherapy group and 87 in the panitumumab plus chemoradiotherapy group). Local-regional control at 2 years was 68% (95% CI 54-78) in the chemoradiotherapy group and 61% (50-71) in the panitumumab plus chemoradiotherapy group. The most frequent grade 3-4 adverse events were dysphagia (17 [27%] of 63 patients in the chemoradiotherapy group vs 35 [40%] of 87 in the panitumumab plus chemoradiotherapy group), mucosal inflammation (15 [24%] vs 48 [55%]), and radiation skin injury (eight [13%] vs 27 [31%]). Serious adverse events were reported in 20 (32%) of 63 patients in the chemoradiotherapy group and in 37 (43%) of 87 patients in the panitumumab plus chemoradiotherapy group. INTERPRETATION: In patients with locally advanced squamous-cell carcinoma of the head and neck, the addition of panitumumab to standard fractionation radiotherapy and cisplatin did not confer any benefit, and the role of EGFR inhibition in these patients needs to be reassessed. FUNDING: Amgen.

A prospective randomised study of transvaginal ultrasound effects of tamoxifen and exemestane in postmenopausal women with early breast cancer.

AIM AND BACKGROUND: A reduction of gynaecological adverse events has been reported in trials comparing aromatase inhibitors with tamoxifen as adjuvant treatment in postmenopausal women with early breast cancer, but there is a paucity of randomised studies specifically investigating their effects on the uterus. We report here the results of a prospective phase III trial comparing the effects of tamoxifen and exemestane by transvaginal ultrasound (TVUS). PATIENTS AND METHODS: Postmenopausal patients with ER+ early breast cancer were randomised to receive tamoxifen 20 mg once daily or exemestane 25 mg once daily as adjuvant hormone therapy. TVUS was performed at baseline and at 6 and 12 months to measure endometrial thickness (ET) and uterine volume (UV). RESULTS: A total of 123 women were randomised to tamoxifen (n = 61) or exemestane (n = 62). A significantly higher proportion of patients in the tamoxifen group had increased ET at 6 and 12 months from randomisation compared with the exemestane group (66.1% and 64.3% versus 12.1% and 6.8%, respectively; P < 0.0001). Mean ET and UV also significantly increased with tamoxifen compared to exemestane at both time points (P < 0.01 for all comparisons). CONCLUSION: Tamoxifen is associated with endometrial thickening and increased uterine volume in a significant proportion of postmenopausal women with early breast cancer. Our study confirms the lack of endometrial effects of exemestane, which may be of interest to patients and clinicians when choosing among adjuvant endocrine options for breast cancer.

The role of chemotherapy and latest emerging target therapies in anaplastic thyroid cancer.

Anaplastic thyroid cancer represents 1%-2% of thyroid cancers. For its aggressiveness, it is considered a systemic disease at the time of diagnosis. Surgery remains the cornerstone of therapy in resectable tumor. Traditional chemotherapy has little effect on metastatic disease. A multimodality approach, incorporating cytoreductive surgical resection, chemoradiation, either concurrently or sequentially, and new promising target therapies is advisable. Doxorubicin is the most commonly used agent, with a response rate of 22%. Recently, other chemotherapy agents have been used, such as paclitaxel and gemcitabine, with superimposable activity and response rates of 10%-20%. However, survival of patients with anaplastic thyroid cancer has changed little in the past 50 years, despite more aggressive systemic and radiotherapies. Several new agents are currently under investigation. Some of them, such as sorafenib, imatinib, and axitinib have been tested in small clinical trials, showing promising disease control rates ranging from 35%-75%. Referral of patients for participation in clinical trials is needed.

Strategies for non-resectable head and neck cancer.

OPINION STATEMENT: Treatment of unresectable, locally advanced head and neck cancer consists of many different options, all of them based on radiotherapy. The main variable is represented by chemotherapy, i.e., the way in which chemotherapy is combined with radiation. More recently, the combination of cetuximab and radiotherapy emerged as a new treatment opportunity and induction chemotherapy, with the combination of docetaxel, cisplatin, and 5-fluoruracil, gained a renewed interest. Concurrent chemoradiation is based on the most robust evidence and is regarded as the leading standard of care for unresectable locally advanced head and neck cancer. Unfortunately, chemoradiation is hampered by severe toxicity and patients must be selected carefully before treatment. The experience of the staff (medical oncologists, radiation oncologists, and nurses), and in particular its familiarity with toxicity management, as well the structural facilities, play an important role in the final outcome. When the patient is unfit for chemoradiation, or when experienced staff or adequate structures are unavailable, induction chemotherapy, cetuximab and radiotherapy, or radiotherapy alone are all evidence-based alternative options. The choice among them will be based on the clinical condition of the patient, the physician's experience, and the patient's preference. Whatever is the treatment of choice, it is important to involve a multidisciplinary staff in the management of these patients. Indeed, also unresectable patients may require supportive surgical interventions before or during treatment, or removal of residual disease after treatment.

Dysphagia in Head and Neck Cancer Patients: Pretreatment Evaluation, Predictive Factors, and Assessment during Radio-Chemotherapy, Recommendations.

Progress in head and neck cancer (HNC) therapies has improved tumor response, loco-regional control, and survival. However, treatment intensification also increases early and late toxicities. Dysphagia is an underestimated symptom in HNC patients. Impairment of swallowing process could cause malnutrition, dehydration, aspiration, and pneumonia. A comprehensive literature review finalized in May 2012 included searches of electronic databases (Medline, Embase, and CAB abstracts) and scientific societies meetings materials (American Society of Clinical Oncology, Associazione Italiana Radioterapia Oncologica, Associazione Italiana di Oncologia Cervico-Cefalica, American Head and Neck Society, and European Society for Medical Oncology). Hand-searches of HNC journals and reference lists were carried out. Approximately one-third of dysphagia patients developed pneumonia requiring treatment. Aspiration pneumonia associated mortality ranged from 20% to 65%. Unidentified dysphagia caused significant morbidity, increased mortality, and decreased the quality of life. In this review we underline definition, causes, predictive factors of dysphagia and report on pretreatment and on-treatment evaluation, suggesting some key points to avoid underestimation. A multi-parameter assessment of swallowing problems may allow an earlier diagnosis. An appropriate evaluation might lead to a better treatment of both symptoms and cancer.