Ferroelectric Phase Transition in Barium Titanate Revisited with Ab Initio Molecular Dynamics.

The ferroelectric phase transition of the perovskite barium titanate as well as its technical importance regarding the switching of respective polar properties is well known and has been thoroughly studied, both experimentally and on theoretical grounds. While details about the phase diagram as well as transition temperatures are experimentally well known, the theoretical approaches still face difficulties in contributing a detailed description of these phase transitions. Within this work, a new methodological approach is introduced to revisit the ferroelectric phase transition with first-principles methods. With the chosen ab initio molecular dynamics (AIMD) method in combination with the applied NpT ensemble, we are able to join the accuracy of density functional theory (DFT) with ambient conditions, realized using a thermostat and barostat in an MD simulation. The derived phase diagram confirms recent corrections in the theoretical models and reproduces the phase boundary pressure dependence of TC. In conclusion of the statistical atomistic dynamics, the nature of the transition can be described in a more detailed way. In addition, this work paves the way towards locally patterned piezoelectrica by means of acoustic standing waves as well as piezoelectrically induced acoustic resonators.

Treatment of multiple-beam X-ray diffraction in energy-dependent measurements.

During X-ray diffraction experiments on single crystals, the diffracted beam intensities may be affected by multiple-beam X-ray diffraction (MBD). This effect is particularly frequent at higher X-ray energies and for larger unit cells. The appearance of this so-called Renninger effect often impairs the interpretation of diffracted intensities. This applies in particular to energy spectra analysed in resonant experiments, since during scans of the incident photon energy these conditions are necessarily met for specific X-ray energies. This effect can be addressed by carefully avoiding multiple-beam reflection conditions at a given X-ray energy and a given position in reciprocal space. However, areas which are (nearly) free of MBD are not always available. This article presents a universal concept of data acquisition and post-processing for resonant X-ray diffraction experiments. Our concept facilitates the reliable determination of kinematic (MBD-free) resonant diffraction intensities even at relatively high energies which, in turn, enables the study of higher absorption edges. This way, the applicability of resonant diffraction, e.g. to reveal the local atomic and electronic structure or chemical environment, is extended for a vast majority of crystalline materials. The potential of this approach compared with conventional data reduction is demonstrated by the measurements of the Ta L3 edge of well studied lithium tantalate LiTaO3.

Sample chamber for synchrotron based in-situ X-ray diffraction experiments under electric fields and temperatures between 100†K and 1250†K.

Many scientific questions require X-ray experiments conducted at varying temperatures, sometimes combined with the application of electric fields. Here, a customized sample chamber developed for beamlines P23 and P24 of PETRA III at DESY to suit these demands is presented. The chamber body consists mainly of standard vacuum parts housing the heater/cooler assembly supplying a temperature range of 100 K to 1250 K and an xyz manipulator holding an electric contact needle for electric measurements at both high voltage and low current. The chamber is closed by an exchangeable hemispherical dome offering all degrees of freedom for single-crystal experiments within one hemisphere of solid angle. The currently available dome materials (PC, PS, PEEK polymers) differ in their absorption and scattering characteristics, with PEEK providing the best overall performance. The article further describes heating and cooling capabilities, electric characteristics, and plans for future upgrades of the chamber. Examples of applications are discussed.

X-ray diffraction using focused-ion-beam-prepared single crystals.

High-quality single-crystal X-ray diffraction measurements are a prerequisite for obtaining precise and reliable structure data and electron densities. The single crystal should therefore fulfill several conditions, of which a regular defined shape is of particularly high importance for compounds consisting of heavy elements with high X-ray absorption coefficients. The absorption of X-rays passing through a 50 µm-thick LiNbO3 crystal can reduce the transmission of Mo Kα radiation by several tens of percent, which makes an absorption correction of the reflection intensities necessary. In order to reduce ambiguities concerning the shape of a crystal, used for the necessary absorption correction, a method for preparation of regularly shaped single crystals out of large samples is presented and evaluated. This method utilizes a focused ion beam to cut crystals with defined size and shape reproducibly and carefully without splintering. For evaluation, a single-crystal X-ray diffraction study using a laboratory diffractometer is presented, comparing differently prepared LiNbO3 crystals originating from the same macroscopic crystal plate. Results of the data reduction, structure refinement and electron density reconstruction indicate qualitatively similar values for all prepared crystals. Thus, the different preparation techniques have a smaller impact than expected. However, the atomic coordinates, electron densities and atomic charges are supposed to be more reliable since the focused-ion-beam-prepared crystal exhibits the smallest extinction influences. This preparation technique is especially recommended for susceptible samples, for cases where a minimal invasive preparation procedure is needed, and for the preparation of crystals from specific areas, complex material architectures and materials that cannot be prepared with common methods (breaking or grinding).

Pyroelectrically-driven chemical reactions described by a novel thermodynamic cycle.

Pyroelectrocatalysis is the conversion of thermal energy directly into chemical energy. On the background of renewable energies and the need for efficient industrial processes, the conversion of waste heat into hydrogen is of special relevance. Since the reported thermodynamic cycles for pyroelectric energy harvesting do not fit the conditions encountered in a reactive medium such as water appropriately, we describe a new thermodynamic charge-voltage-cycle characterised by fixed upper and lower potentials. These threshold potentials comprise the redox potential of the reaction of interest - here the hydrogen evolution reaction - as well as an overpotential mainly dictated by the temperature-induced bending of electronic bands in the pyroelectric semiconductor. Because polarisation changes below the threshold are useless for chemical reactions, material properties as well as process conditions have to be chosen accordingly. In particular the particle size along with the temperature difference are shown to determine the conversion efficiency.

The Aluminum-Ion Battery: A Sustainable and Seminal Concept?

The expansion of renewable energy and the growing number of electric vehicles and mobile devices are demanding improved and low-cost electrochemical energy storage. In order to meet the future needs for energy storage, novel material systems with high energy densities, readily available raw materials, and safety are required. Currently, lithium and lead mainly dominate the battery market, but apart from cobalt and phosphorous, lithium may show substantial supply challenges prospectively, as well. Therefore, the search for new chemistries will become increasingly important in the future, to diversify battery technologies. But which materials seem promising? Using a selection algorithm for the evaluation of suitable materials, the concept of a rechargeable, high-valent all-solid-state aluminum-ion battery appears promising, in which metallic aluminum is used as the negative electrode. On the one hand, this offers the advantage of a volumetric capacity four times higher (theoretically) compared to lithium analog. On the other hand, aluminum is the most abundant metal in the earth's crust. There is a mature industry and recycling infrastructure, making aluminum very cost efficient. This would make the aluminum-ion battery an important contribution to the energy transition process, which has already started globally. So far, it has not been possible to exploit this technological potential, as suitable positive electrodes and electrolyte materials are still lacking. The discovery of inorganic materials with high aluminum-ion mobility-usable as solid electrolytes or intercalation electrodes-is an innovative and required leap forward in the field of rechargeable high-valent ion batteries. In this review article, the constraints for a sustainable and seminal battery chemistry are described, and we present an assessment of the chemical elements in terms of negative electrodes, comprehensively motivate utilizing aluminum, categorize the aluminum battery field, critically review the existing positive electrodes and solid electrolytes, present a promising path for the accelerated development of novel materials and address problems of scientific communication in this field.

Sulfur- and Selenium-Containing Compounds Potentially Exhibiting Al Ion Conductivity.

We have created a set of crystalline model structures exhibiting straight lines of Al3+ connected to chalcogenides (O2- , S2- , and Se2- ) connected to metal cations of varying valence (Sr2+ , Y3+ , Zr4+ , Nb5+ , and Mo6+ ). They were relaxed with density functional theory computations and analysed by Bader partitioning. As Al3+ ions are supposed to strongly interact with their atomic environment, we studied the electron density topology induced by higher-valent cations in the extended chemical neighbourhood of Al. In fact, we found a general decrease of ionic charges and an increasing displacement of the chalcogenides towards higher-valent ions for the heavier chalcogens. Therefore, we comprehensively screened S- and Se-containing compounds for candidates theoretically exhibiting low migration barriers for Al3+ ions by using Voronoi-Dirichlet partitioning and bond valence site energy calculations. The basis for this search is the Inorganic Crystal Structure Database. Indeed, we could extract six promising candidates with low Al3+ migration barriers. which are even lower than the barriers for any other element inside of these materials. This will encourage efforts towards preparing suitable Al3+ conductors.

Effect of Charge Transfer upon Li- and Na-Ion Insertion in Fine-Grained Graphitic Material as Probed by NMR.

We investigated the insertion-extraction behaviors of Li and Na ions in graphitic materials using solid-state NMR. A unique advantage of high-degree 13C-isotope enrichment of graphitic material allowed sensitive and metastable graphite intercalation compounds to be measured in a short time. Ex situ 13C magic-angle spinning NMR spectra of 13C fine-grained graphite are presented as a function of state-of-charge. The observations are discussed with respect to graphite intercalation phenomena, which include the effects of charge transfer and the demagnetizing field. Dramatic narrowing of the 13C NMR signal in metal-intercalated graphite evidences quasi-complete charge transfer occurring between lithium and graphite host material and resulting in reducing the macroscopic field effects. Upon Na insertion, incomplete charge transfer is observed and explained by inaccessibility of graphitic interlayer space for Na ions in our study. In addition, critical issues of reversibility of Li- and Na-ion electrochemical cells and solid electrolyte interphase formation are considered on the atomic scale. The knowledge gained in the present work can be applied to advanced high-power-density electrode materials for safe and fast-charging metal-ion batteries or for novel spintronic concepts with controlled spin-polarized charge carrier injection and transport combined with the possibility to manipulate magnetic anisotropy.

Picometer polar atomic displacements in strontium titanate determined by resonant X-ray diffraction.

Physical properties of crystalline materials often manifest themselves as atomic displacements either away from symmetry positions or driven by external fields. Especially the origin of multiferroic or magnetoelectric effects may be hard to ascertain as the related displacements can reach the detection limit. Here we present a resonant X-ray crystal structure analysis technique that shows enhanced sensitivity to minute atomic displacements. It is applied to a recently found crystalline modification of strontium titanate that forms in single crystals under electric field due to oxygen vacancy migration. The phase has demonstrated unexpected properties, including piezoelectricity and pyroelectricity, which can only exist in non-centrosymmetric crystals. Apart from that, the atomic structure has remained elusive and could not be obtained by standard methods. Using resonant X-ray diffraction, we determine atomic displacements with sub-picometer precision and show that the modified structure of strontium titanate corresponds to that of well-known ferroelectrics such as lead titanate.

The anisotropy of oxygen vacancy migration in SrTiO3.

Oxygen migration in perovskites is well known to occur via vacancies along the TiO6 octahedron edges. Ionic conduction depends further on the orientation of the crystal in the electric field. To study the anisotropy in cubic SrTiO3 single crystals, temperature-dependent electroformation measurements ranging from 11 °C to 50 °C have been conducted for representative crystallographic directions within the crystal system. Electroformation of pure SrTiO3 follows an Arrhenius behavior, implying an ionic migration process of intrinsic oxygen defects. Activation energies E A for oxygen vacancy migration have been determined to 0.70 eV for [Formula: see text] and [Formula: see text] directions in contrast to 0.77 eV for [Formula: see text]. Mobility of oxygen vacancies is enhanced in [Formula: see text] compared to [Formula: see text] and [Formula: see text] by up to half an order of magnitude. A migration model based on atomistic migration paths and their multiplicities accounts for these experimental variations in mobility.

Analysis of modulated Ho2PdSi3 crystal structure at Pd K and Ho L absorption edges using resonant elastic X-scattering.

Replacing Si atoms with a transition metal in rare earth disilicides results in a family of intermetallic compounds with a variety of complex magnetic phase transitions. In particular, the family R 2PdSi3 shows interesting magnetic behavior arising from the electronic interaction of the R element with the transition metal in the Si network, inducing the specific structure of the related phase. Within this series, the highest degree of superstructural order was reported for the investigated representative Ho2PdSi3, although several competing superstructures have been proposed in literature. The diffraction anomalous fine structure (DAFS) method is highly sensitive to the local structure of chosen atoms at specific positions within the unit cell of a crystalline phase. In combination with x-ray absorption fine structure (XAFS), this sophisticated synchrotron method has been applied in the present work to several selected reflections, i.a. a satellite reflection. Extensive electronic modeling was used to test the most relevant structure proposals. The [Formula: see text] superstructure has been strongly confirmed, although a small amount of disorder in the modulation is very probable.

On the Way to New Possible Na-Ion Conductors: The Voronoi-Dirichlet Approach, Data Mining and Symmetry Considerations in Ternary Na Oxides.

With the constant growth of the lithium battery market and the introduction of electric vehicles and stationary energy storage solutions, the low abundance and high price of lithium will greatly impact its availability in the future. Thus, a diversification of electrochemical energy storage technologies based on other source materials is of great relevance. Sodium is energetically similar to lithium but cheaper and more abundant, which results in some already established stationary concepts, such as Na-S and ZEBRA cells. The most significant bottleneck for these technologies is to find effective solid ionic conductors. Thus, the goal of this work is to identify new ionic conductors for Na ions in ternary Na oxides. For this purpose, the Voronoi-Dirichlet approach has been applied to the Inorganic Crystal Structure Database and some new procedures are introduced to the algorithm implemented in the programme package ToposPro. The main new features are the use of data mined values, which are then used for the evaluation of void spaces, and a new method of channel size calculation. 52 compounds have been identified to be high-potential candidates for solid ionic conductors. The results were analysed from a crystallographic point of view in combination with phenomenological requirements for ionic conductors and intercalation hosts. Of the most promising candidates, previously reported compounds have also been successfully identified by using the employed algorithm, which shows the reliability of the method.

Crystallization dynamics and interface stability of strontium titanate thin films on silicon.

Different physical vapor deposition methods have been used to fabricate strontium titanate thin films. Within the binary phase diagram of SrO and TiO2 the stoichiometry ranges from Ti rich to Sr rich, respectively. The crystallization of these amorphous SrTiO3 layers is investigated by in situ grazing-incidence X-ray diffraction using synchrotron radiation. The crystallization dynamics and evolution of the lattice constants as well as crystallite sizes of the SrTiO3 layers were determined for temperatures up to 1223 K under atmospheric conditions applying different heating rates. At approximately 473 K, crystallization of perovskite-type SrTiO3 is initiated for Sr-rich electron beam evaporated layers, whereas Sr-depleted sputter-deposited thin films crystallize at 739 K. During annealing, a significant diffusion of Si from the substrate into the SrTiO3 layers occurs in the case of Sr-rich composition. This leads to the formation of secondary silicate phases which are observed by X-ray diffraction, transmission electron microscopy and X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy.

Extreme Biomimetics: formation of zirconium dioxide nanophase using chitinous scaffolds under hydrothermal conditions.

Chitinous scaffolds isolated from the skeleton of marine sponge Aplysina cauliformis were used as a template for the in vitro formation of zirconium dioxide nanophase from ammonium zirconium(iv) carbonate (AZC) under extreme conditions (150 °C). These novel zirconia-chitin based composites were prepared for the first time using hydrothermal synthesis, and were thoroughly characterized using a plethora of analytical methods. The thermostability of the chitinous 3D matrix makes it ideal for use in the hydrothermal synthesis of monoclinic nanostructured zirconium dioxide from precursors like AZC. These zirconium-chitin composites have a high potential for use in a broad range of applications ranging from synthetic catalysis to biocompatible materials for bone and dental repair. The synthetic methods presented in this work show an attractive route for producing monoclinic zirconium dioxide on a 3D biocompatible scaffold with ease.

An extreme biomimetic approach: hydrothermal synthesis of ß-chitin/ZnO nanostructured composites.

ß-Chitinous scaffolds isolated from the skeleton of marine cephalopod Sepia officinalis were used as a template for the in vitro formation of ZnO under conditions (70 °C) which are extreme for biological materials. Novel ß-chitin/ZnO film-like composites were prepared for the first time by hydrothermal synthesis, and were thoroughly characterized using numerous analytical methods including Raman spectroscopy, HR-TEM and XRD. We demonstrate the growth of hexagonal ZnO nanocrystals on the ß-chitin substrate. Our chitin/ZnO composites presented in this work show antibacterial properties against Gram positive bacteria and can be employed for development of inorganic-organic wound dressing materials.

Absorption and extinction correction in quantitative DAFS analysis.

An approach to X-ray attenuation correction for diffraction anomalous fine-structure (DAFS) measurements is presented, taking into account energy-dependent secondary extinction effects. A numerical model based on the kinematical theory of diffraction is presented. This model is exemplified by DAFS measurements of the Zr 0002 reflection intensities for energies in the vicinity of the Zr K absorption edge of a Co/Zr multilayer exhibiting strong fibre texture. X-ray absorption fine-structure (XAFS) measurements proved to be a necessary auxiliary for DAFS amplitude correction.