Spatial overlap of gray wolves and ungulate prey changes seasonally corresponding to prey migration.

BACKGROUND: Prey are more vulnerable during migration due to decreased familiarity with their surroundings and spatially concentrated movements. Predators may respond to increased prey vulnerability by shifting their ranges to match prey. Moose (Alces alces) and white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) are primary gray wolf (Canis lupus) prey and important subsistence species for Indigenous communities. We hypothesized wolves would increase use of ungulate migration corridors during migrations and predicted wolf distributions would overlap primary available prey. METHODS: We examined seasonal gray wolf, moose, and white-tailed deer movements on and near the Grand Portage Indian Reservation, Minnesota, USA. We analyzed GPS collar data during 2012-2021 using Brownian bridge movement models (BBMM) in Migration Mapper and mechanistic range shift analysis (MRSA) to estimate individual- and population-level occurrence distributions and determine the status and timing of range shifts. We estimated proportional overlap of wolf distributions with moose and deer distributions and tested for differences among seasons, prey populations, and wolf sex and pack affiliations. RESULTS: We identified a single migration corridor through which white-tailed deer synchronously departed in April and returned in October-November. Gray wolf distributions overlapped the deer migration corridor similarly year-round, but wolves altered within-range distributions seasonally corresponding to prey distributions. Seasonal wolf distributions had the greatest overlap with deer during fall migration (10 October-28 November) and greatest overlap with moose during summer (3 May-9 October). CONCLUSIONS: Gray wolves did not increase their use of the white-tailed deer migration corridor but altered distributions within their territories in response to seasonal prey distributions. Greater overlap of wolves and white-tailed deer in fall may be due to greater predation success facilitated by asynchronous deer migration movements. Greater summer overlap between wolves and moose may be linked to moose calf vulnerability, American beaver (Castor canadensis) co-occurrence, and reduced deer abundance associated with migration. Our results suggest increases in predation pressure on deer in fall and moose in summer, which can inform Indigenous conservation efforts. We observed seasonal plasticity of wolf distributions suggestive of prey switching; that wolves did not exhibit migratory coupling was likely due to spatial constraints resulting from territoriality.

Spatial patterns of reproduction suggest marginal habitat limits continued range expansion of black bears at a forest-desert ecotone.

Investigating spatial patterns of animal occupancy and reproduction in peripheral populations can provide insight into factors that form species range boundaries. Following historical extirpation, American black bears (Ursus americanus) recolonized the western Great Basin in Nevada from the Sierra Nevada during the late 1900s. This range expansion, however, has not continued further into the Great Basin despite the presence of additional habitat. We aimed to quantify whether reduced reproduction toward the range edge contributes to this range boundary. We analyzed black bear detections from 100 camera traps deployed across black bear distribution in western Nevada using a multistate occupancy model that quantified the probability of occupancy and reproduction (i.e., female bears with cubs occupancy) in relation to changes in habitat type and habitat amount toward the range boundary. We detected a strong effect of habitat amount and habitat type on the probability of black bear occupancy and reproduction. At similar levels of landscape-scale habitat amount (e.g., 50%), estimated probability of occupancy for adult bears in piñon-juniper woodlands near the range boundary was 0.39, compared to ~1.0 in Sierra Nevada mixed-conifer forest (i.e., core habitat). Furthermore, estimated probability of cub occupancy, conditional on adult bear occupancy, in landscapes with 50% habitat was 0.32 in Great Basin piñon-juniper woodlands, compared to 0.92 in Sierra Nevada mixed-conifer forest. Black bear range in the western Great Basin conforms to the center-periphery hypothesis, with piñon-juniper woodland at the range edge supporting ecologically marginal habitat for the species compared to habitat in the Sierra Nevada. Further geographic expansion of black bears in the Great Basin may be limited by lower occupancy of reproducing females in piñon-juniper woodland. Center-periphery range dynamics may be common in large carnivore species, as their dispersal ability allows them to colonize low-quality habitat near range edges.

Personality and Spirituality as Predictors of Mental Health and Salivary Alpha-Amylase Activity in Breast Cancer Survivors.

OBJECTIVES: To determine the relative predictive validity of personality and spirituality for mental health and salivary alpha-amylase (sAA) in breast cancer (BC) survivors. SAMPLE & SETTING: 23 BC survivors participated in a single-group, cross-sectional study. METHODS & VARIABLES: Predictor variables included personality and spiritual variables. Outcome variables included subjective physical and mental health outcomes and sAA, a neuroimmune biomarker. RESULTS: Hierarchical regressions indicated that (a) conscientiousness and forgiveness independently predict 38% and 11% of variance in mental health scores, respectively; and (b) conscientiousness and forgiveness independently predict 15% and 24% of the variance in sAA, respectively. Consistent with psychoneuroimmunology theory, personality and spiritual variables independently influence subjective mental health and neuroimmune activity in BC survivors. IMPLICATIONS FOR NURSING: Nurses should be aware of BC survivors' personality characteristics and spiritual dispositions so that distinct interventions can be offered to promote mental health and reduce stress-related neuroimmune inflammation.

Physiological acclimation of elk during population restoration in the Missouri Ozarks, USA.

Conservation translocations-the intentional movement of animals to restore populations-have increased over the past 30 years to halt and reverse species declines and losses. However, there are many challenges translocated animals face that should be considered for restoration programs to be successful. Understanding how long it takes for translocated animals to acclimate to these challenges and their new landscape is a critical component of post-release population management. Physiological measures such as hormone responses are increasingly used to assess animal responses and acclimation to disturbances including translocation. We determined the physiological acclimation period of elk (Cervus canadensis) translocated to the Missouri Ozarks, USA, as part of a restoration effort. From 2011 to 2013, we translocated 108 GPS-radio-collared elk from Kentucky, USA, to Missouri, USA, and collected faecal samples for glucocorticoid metabolite extraction to use as an indicator of physiological acclimation. We modelled the response of population-wide faecal glucocorticoid metabolites (fGCMs) across the initial 9 years of the restoration in response to days following release and additional site-specific covariates. Presence of white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) hunts and monthly precipitation levels were positively and negatively associated with fGCM levels, respectively. Concurrent with influences from site-specific conditions on the release landscape, fGCM levels declined following release. We identified a breakpoint in fGCM decline at ~42 days following translocation releases suggesting elk acclimated physiologically relatively quickly compared to other species. The fast physiological acclimation by Missouri elk suggests effective use of temporary post-release management efforts. Determining how quickly animals acclimate following translocations allows researchers to tailor post-release management plans to each species' needs, thus maximizing the success of future translocation efforts while minimizing costs.

An apex carnivore's life history mediates a predator cascade.

Apex predators can shape communities via cascading top-down effects, but the degree to which such effects depend on predator life history traits is largely unknown. Within carnivore guilds, complex hierarchies of dominance facilitate coexistence, whereby subordinate species avoid dominant counterparts by partitioning space, time, or both. We investigated whether a major life history trait (hibernation) in an apex carnivore (black bears Ursus americanus) mediated its top-down effects on the spatio-temporal dynamics of three sympatric mesocarnivore species (coyotes Canis latrans, bobcats Lynx rufus, and gray foxes Urocyon cinereoargenteus) across a 15,000 km2 landscape in the western USA. We compared top-down, bottom-up, and environmental effects on these mesocarnivores using an integrated modeling approach. Black bears exerted top-down effects that varied as a function of hibernation and were stronger than bottom-up or environmental impacts. High black bear activity in summer and fall appeared to buffer the most subordinate mesocarnivore (gray foxes) from competition with dominant mesocarnivores (coyotes and bobcats), which were in turn released by black bear hibernation in winter and early spring. The mesocarnivore responses occurred in space (i.e., altered occupancy and site visitation intensity) rather than time (i.e., diel activity patterns unaffected). These results suggest that the spatio-temporal dynamics of mesocarnivores in this system were principally shaped by a spatial predator cascade of interference competition mediated by black bear hibernation. Thus, certain life history traits of apex predators might facilitate coexistence among competing species over broad time scales, with complex implications for lower trophic levels.

A rare 300 kilometer dispersal by an adult male white-tailed deer.

Despite the key roles that dispersal plays in individual animal fitness and meta-population gene flow, it remains one of the least understood behaviors in many species. In large mammalian herbivores, dispersals might span long distances and thereby influence landscape-level ecological processes, such as infectious disease spread. Here, we describe and analyze an exceptional long-distance dispersal by an adult white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) in the central United States. We also conducted a literature survey to compare the dispersal to previous studies. This dispersal was remarkable for its length, duration, and the life history stage of the dispersing individual. Dispersal is typical of juvenile deer seeking to establish postnatal home ranges, but this dispersal was undertaken by an adult male (age = 3.5). This individual dispersed ~300 km over a 22-day period by moving, on average, 13.6 km/day and achieving a straight-line distance of ~215 km, which was ~174 km longer than any other distance recorded for an adult male deer in our literature survey. During the dispersal, which occurred during the hunting season, the individual crossed a major river seven times, an interstate highway, a railroad, and eight state highways. Movements during the dispersal were faster (mean = 568.1 m/h) and more directional than those during stationary home range periods before and after the dispersal (mean = 56.9 m/h). Likewise, movements during the dispersal were faster (mean = 847.8 m/h) and more directional at night than during the day (mean = 166.4 m/h), when the individual frequently sheltered in forest cover. This natural history event highlights the unpredictable nature of dispersal and has important implications for landscape-level processes such as chronic wasting disease transmission in cervids. More broadly, our study underscores how integrating natural history observations with modern technology holds promise for understanding potentially high impact but rarely recorded ecological events.

An agent-based framework for improving wildlife disease surveillance: A case study of chronic wasting disease in Missouri white-tailed deer.

Epidemiological surveillance for important wildlife diseases often relies on samples obtained from hunter-harvested animals. A problem, however, is that although convenient and cost-effective, hunter-harvest samples are not representative of the population due to heterogeneities in disease distribution and biased sampling. We developed an agent-based modeling framework that i) simulates a deer population in a user-generated landscape, and ii) uses a snapshot of the in silico deer population to simulate disease prevalence and distribution, harvest effort and sampling as per user-specified parameters. This framework can incorporate real-world heterogeneities in disease distribution, hunter harvest and harvest-based sampling, and therefore can be useful in informing wildlife disease surveillance strategies, specifically to determine population-specific sample sizes necessary for prompt detection of disease. Application of this framework is illustrated using the example of chronic wasting disease (CWD) surveillance in Missouri's white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) population. We show how confidence in detecting CWD is grossly overestimated under the unrealistic, but standard, assumptions that sampling effort and disease are randomly and independently distributed. We then provide adjusted sample size recommendations based on more realistic assumptions. Wildlife agencies can use these open-access models to design their CWD surveillance. Furthermore, these models can be readily adapted to other regions and other wildlife disease systems.

Getting in Front of Chronic Wasting Disease: Model-Informed Proactive Approach for Managing an Emerging Wildlife Disease.

Continuing geographic spread of chronic wasting disease (CWD) poses a serious threat to the sustainable future of cervids and hunting in North America. Moreover, CWD has been detected in captive cervids in South Korea and, in recent years, in free-ranging reindeer in Europe (Norway). Management of this disease is limited by logistical, financial, and sociopolitical considerations, and current strategies primarily focus on reducing host densities through hunter harvest and targeted culling. The success of such strategies in mitigating the spread and prevalence of CWD only upon detection is questionable. Here, we propose a proactive approach that emphasizes pre-emptive management through purposeful integration of virtual experiments (simulating alternate interventions as model scenarios) with the aim of evaluating their effectiveness. Here, we have used a published agent-based model that links white-tailed deer demography and behavior with CWD transmission dynamics to first derive a CWD outbreak trajectory and then use the trajectory to highlight issues associated with different phases of the CWD outbreak (pre-establishment/transition/endemic). Specifically, we highlight the practical constraints on surveillance in the pre-establishment phase and recommend that agencies use a realistic detection threshold for their CWD surveillance programs. We further demonstrate that many disease introductions are "dead ends" not leading to a full epidemic due to high stochasticity and harvesting in the pre-establishment phase of CWD. Model evaluated pre-emptive (pre-detection) harvest strategies could increase the resilience of the deer population to CWD spread and establishment. We conclude it is important to adaptively position CWD management ahead of, rather than behind, the CWD front.

Effects of forest management on vertebrates: synthesizing two decades of data from hardwood forests in Missouri, USA.

Modern forest management seeks to balance multiple social, economic, and ecological goals. Different management approaches create different types of disturbances in a forest ecosystem and thus also differ in their impacts on plants, animals, and insects. Understanding these impacts is important for conservation of forest ecosystem function, but challenging due to the large spatial and temporal scale over which management occurs. Most past research has focused on relatively small areas, short time scales, and/or a small number of species. To address this, we examined the effects of two common silvicultural systems (even and uneven aged) on abundance and richness of three vertebrate taxa (birds, small mammals, and herpetofauna) over a two-decade period in a temperate hardwood forest in Missouri, USA. The two systems removed a similar amount of biomass overall, but differed in the intensity, number, and configuration of harvests applied. We found that vertebrate population responses varied by taxa, occurred at multiple spatial scales, and were concentrated in the period following the first harvest entry. Birds generally had the largest changes in relative abundance, both positive and negative, following management. Small mammals and reptiles had smaller, but generally positive, responses; amphibians were mixed. Bird species tended to respond in the same way to both silvicultural systems, while small mammals and herpetofauna did not respond consistently. Thus, for birds, the total amount of harvest disturbance across the landscape drives population responses, while for others the size and configuration of individual harvests is likely more important. Synthesizing results across the vertebrate community at large spatial and temporal scales allows managers to better understand trade-offs when making decisions that will affect wildlife in contrasting ways.

Nutritional condition and physiological stress levels of elk in the Black Hills, South Dakota.

Percent of body fat and physiological stress are important correlates to wildlife demographics. We studied winter percent of body fat and physiological stress levels for a declining elk (Cervus canadensis nelsoni) population in South Dakota, 2011-2013. We obtained percent of winter body fat, pregnancy status, lactation status, and physiological stress data from 58 adult females (2+ years old). We compared physiological stress level data from 2011 with data collected from this same herd when elk densities were much higher (1995-1997). Our objectives were to determine percent of body fat during winter, examine if winter body fat was correlated with pregnancy and lactation status, and quantify and compare physiological stress hormone values from elk in the mid-1990s. Probability of being pregnant increased with higher winter nutritional condition, or percent of body fat; whereas females with a higher probability of previously lactating were lower in winter body fat. Mean fecal glucocorticoid metabolite (FGM) levels in 2011 (mean = 47.78 ng/g, SE = 2.37) were higher during summer compared to data collected in 1995-1997 (mean = 34.21 ng/g, SE = 3.71); however, mean FGM levels during winter did not differ between the two time periods. Although summer levels of FGM have significantly increased since the mid-1990s, we caution against any interpretation of increased FGM levels on elk fitness, as it may not infer biological significance. Mean winter percent of body fat of elk was lower when compared to other populations in the west but this difference does not appear to be limiting vital rates and population growth for this elk herd. We recommend future research focus on summer/autumn data collection to provide a more comprehensive understanding of percent of body fat for elk in our region.

Evaluating the individuality of animal-habitat relationships.

Examining the ways in which animals use habitat and select resources to satisfy their life history requirements has important implications for ecology, evolution, and conservation. The advent of radio-tracking in the mid-20th century greatly expanded the scope of animal-habitat modeling. Thereafter, it became common practice to aggregate telemetry data collected on a number of tagged individuals and fit one model describing resource selection at the population level. This convention, however, runs the risk of masking important individuality in the nature of associations between animals and their environment. Here, we investigated the importance of individual variation in animal-habitat relationships via the study of a highly gregarious species. We modeled elk (Cervus elaphus) location data, collected from Global Positioning System (GPS) collars, using Bayesian discrete choice resource selection function (RSF) models. Using a high-performance computing cluster, we batch-processed these models at the level of each individual elk (n = 88) and evaluated the output with respect to: (a) the composition of parameters in the most supported models, (b) the estimates of the parameters featured in the global models, and (c) spatial maps of the predicted relative probabilities of use. We detected considerable individual variation across all three metrics. For instance, the most supported models varied with respect to parameter composition with a range of seven to 17 and an average of 14.4 parameters per individual elk. The estimates of the parameters featured in the global models also varied greatly across individual elk with little conformity detected across age or sex classes. Finally, spatial mapping illustrated stark differences in the predicted relative probabilities of use across individual elk. Our analysis identifies that animal-habitat relationships, even among the most gregarious of species, can be highly variable. We discuss the implications of our results for ecology and present some guiding principles for the development of RSF models at the individual-animal level.

Mammal communities are larger and more diverse in moderately developed areas.

Developed areas are thought to have low species diversity, low animal abundance, few native predators, and thus low resilience and ecological function. Working with citizen scientist volunteers to survey mammals at 1427 sites across two development gradients (wild-rural-exurban-suburban-urban) and four plot types (large forests, small forest fragments, open areas and residential yards) in the eastern US, we show that developed areas actually had significantly higher or statistically similar mammalian occupancy, relative abundance, richness and diversity compared to wild areas. However, although some animals can thrive in suburbia, conservation of wild areas and preservation of green space within cities are needed to protect sensitive species and to give all species the chance to adapt and persist in the Anthropocene.

Integrating physiological stress into the movement ecology of migratory ungulates: a spatial analysis with mule deer.

Rapid climate and human land-use change may limit the ability of long-distance migratory herbivores to optimally track or 'surf' high-quality forage during spring green-up. Understanding how anthropogenic and environmental stressors influence migratory movements is of critical importance because of their potential to cause a mismatch between the timing of animal movements and the emergence of high-quality forage. We measured stress hormones (fecal glucocorticoid metabolites; FGMs) to test hypotheses about the effects of high-quality forage tracking, human land-use and use of stopover sites on the physiological state of individuals along a migratory route. We collected and analysed FGM concentrations from 399 mule deer (Odocoileus hemionus) samples obtained along a 241-km migratory route in western Wyoming, USA, during spring 2015 and 2016. In support of a fitness benefit hypothesis, individuals occupying areas closer to peak forage quality had decreased FGM levels. Specifically, for every 10-day interval closer to peak forage quality, we observed a 7% decrease in FGMs. Additionally, we observed support for both an additive anthropogenic stress hypothesis and a hypothesis that stopovers act as physiological refugia, wherein individuals sampled far from stopover sites exhibited 341% higher FGM levels if in areas of low landscape integrity compared to areas of high landscape integrity. Overall, our findings indicate that the physiological state of mule deer during migration is influenced by both anthropogenic disturbances and their ability to track high-quality forage. The availability of stopovers, however, modulates physiological responses to those stressors. Thus, our results support a recent call for the prioritization of stopover locations and connectivity between those locations in conservation planning for migratory large herbivores.

MENINGEAL WORM ( PARELAPHOSTRONGYLUS TENUIS) AS A CAUSE OF MORTALITY IN THE RESTORED ELK ( CERVUS CANADENSIS) POPULATION IN MISSOURI, USA.

: Meningeal worm ( Parelaphostrongylus tenuis) is an important cause of mortality of elk ( Cervus canadensis) in populations in the eastern US and has been implicated in the failure of several restoration attempts. From 2011 to 2013, the Missouri Department of Conservation translocated 108 adult and yearling elk from Kentucky (US) to southern Missouri (US) to establish a free-ranging population. From release in spring 2011 through August 2015, we monitored 167 elk (adult, yearling, and calf) to determine causes of mortality. Of 78 mortalities, 26 (33%) were linked to meningeal worm based on necropsy results and/or observed behavior; this group included 19 elk with confirmed or suspected cases of meningeal worm infection that died of other proximate causes. Other important mortality sources included euthanasia ( n=11, 14%), emaciation ( n=7, 9%), and predation ( n=5, 6%). Eleven of the 26 (42%) meningeal worm-related mortalities were adults, and 22 (85%) were female. Meningeal worm was an important cause of mortality during the restoration of Missouri elk, potentially contributing to the loss of 16% of the monitored individuals. Greater mortality in adult female elk could reduce initial population growth by limiting reproductive output in the restored herd, especially given that females were disproportionately affected in Missouri. Because translocated Missouri elk undoubtedly were exposed to meningeal worm in Kentucky, our results could be explained by exposure to a different genetic strain of meningeal worm once in Missouri, loss of immune response due to translocation, increased dose of larval worms, or some unquantified factor.

The many faces of fear: a synthesis of the methodological variation in characterizing predation risk.

Predators affect prey by killing them directly (lethal effects) and by inducing costly antipredator behaviours in living prey (risk effects). Risk effects can strongly influence prey populations and cascade through trophic systems. A prerequisite for assessing risk effects is characterizing the spatiotemporal variation in predation risk. Risk effects research has experienced rapid growth in the last several decades. However, preliminary assessments of the resultant literature suggest that researchers characterize predation risk using a variety of techniques. The implications of this methodological variation for inference and comparability among studies have not been well recognized or formally synthesized. We couple a literature survey with a hierarchical framework, developed from established theory, to quantify the methodological variation in characterizing risk using carnivore-ungulate systems as a case study. Via this process, we documented 244 metrics of risk from 141 studies falling into at least 13 distinct subcategories within three broader categories. Both empirical and theoretical work suggest risk and its effects on prey constitute a complex, multi-dimensional process with expressions varying by spatiotemporal scale. Our survey suggests this multi-scale complexity is reflected in the literature as a whole but often underappreciated in any given study, which complicates comparability among studies and leads to an overemphasis on documenting the presence of risk effects rather than their mechanisms or scale of influence. We suggest risk metrics be placed in a more concrete conceptual framework to clarify inference surrounding risk effects and their cascading effects throughout ecosystems. We recommend studies (i) take a multi-scale approach to characterizing risk; (ii) explicitly consider 'true' predation risk (probability of predation per unit time); and (iii) use risk metrics that facilitate comparison among studies and the evaluation of multiple competing hypotheses. Addressing the pressing questions in risk effects research, including how, to what extent and on what scale they occur, requires leveraging the advantages of the many methods available to characterize risk while minimizing the confusion caused by variability in their application.

Simulated data and code for analysis of herpetofauna response to forest management in the Missouri Ozarks.

We present predictor variables and R and Stan code for simulating and analyzing counts of Missouri Ozark herpetofauna in response to three forest management strategies. Our code performs four primary purposes: import predictor variables from spreadsheets; simulate synthetic response variables based on imported predictor variables and user-supplied values for data-generating parameters; format synthetic data for export to Stan; and analyze synthetic data.

A two-species occupancy model accommodating simultaneous spatial and interspecific dependence.

Occupancy models are popular for estimating the probability a site is occupied by a species of interest when detection is imperfect. Occupancy models have been extended to account for interacting species and spatial dependence but cannot presently allow both factors to act simultaneously. We propose a two-species occupancy model that accommodates both interspecific and spatial dependence. We use a point-referenced multivariate hierarchical spatial model to account for both spatial and interspecific dependence. We model spatial random effects with predictive process models and use probit regression to improve efficiency of posterior sampling. We model occupancy probabilities of red fox (Vulpes vulpes) and coyote (Canis latrans) with camera trap data collected from six mid-Atlantic states in the eastern United States. We fit four models comprising a fully factorial combination of spatial and interspecific dependence to two-thirds of camera trapping sites and validated models with the remaining data. Red fox and coyotes each exhibited spatial dependence at distances > 0.8 and 0.4 km, respectively, and exhibited geographic variation in interspecific dependence. Consequently, predictions from the model assuming simultaneous spatial and interspecific dependence best matched test data observations. This application highlights the utility of simultaneously accounting for spatial and interspecific dependence.

Demographics and density estimates of two three-toed box turtle (Terrapene carolina triunguis) populations within forest and restored prairie sites in central Missouri.

Box turtles (Terrapene carolina) are widely distributed but vulnerable to population decline across their range. Using distance sampling, morphometric data, and an index of carapace damage, we surveyed three-toed box turtles (Terrapene carolina triunguis) at 2 sites in central Missouri, and compared differences in detection probabilities when transects were walked by one or two observers. Our estimated turtle densities within forested cover was less at the Thomas S. Baskett Wildlife Research and Education Center, a site dominated by eastern hardwood forest (d = 1.85 turtles/ha, 95% CI [1.13, 3.03]) than at the Prairie Fork Conservation Area, a site containing a mix of open field and hardwood forest (d = 4.14 turtles/ha, 95% CI [1.99, 8.62]). Turtles at Baskett were significantly older and larger than turtles at Prairie Fork. Damage to the carapace did not differ significantly between the 2 populations despite the more prevalent habitat management including mowing and prescribed fire at Prairie Fork. We achieved improved estimates of density using two rather than one observer at Prairie Fork, but negligible differences in density estimates between the two methods at Baskett. Error associated with probability of detection decreased at both sites with the addition of a second observer. We provide demographic data on three-toed box turtles that suggest the use of a range of habitat conditions by three-toed box turtles. This case study suggests that habitat management practices and their impacts on habitat composition may be a cause of the differences observed in our focal populations of turtles.

Predator-induced renesting and reproductive effort in indigo buntings: more work for less pay?

Renesting after nest predation is ultimately an adaptive response to increase productivity in birds. However, renesting also increases reproductive effort to replace lost clutches. We investigated the consequences of this increased reproductive effort by determining whether renesting in female indigo buntings (Passerina cyanea) is associated with a decline in body condition (size-corrected mass) and haematocrit and an increase in stress hormones and whether renesting or maternal body condition is associated with a decline in productivity (clutch size, nestling body condition). Next, because a consequence of multiple renesting attempts is a prolonged breeding season and later timing, we predicted that a population of post-breeding females and juveniles would have lower body condition in fragmented forest than in contiguous forest owing to higher nest predation and frequency of renesting. Both forest types were settled by females of similar condition. Nest survival was lower in fragmented forest, where a higher proportion of females failed their first attempt and the breeding season was 2 weeks longer. Compared with females on their first attempt, renesting females had lower body condition and haematocrit and higher corticosterone concentrations. Lower maternal body condition was associated with higher concentrations of corticosterone, lower nestling body condition and smaller clutches. Clutch size was lower in renests and in fragmented forest. Nestling condition was lower in renests but did not vary greatly with forest type. Despite a prolonged breeding season in the fragmented forest, post-breeding females and hatch-year birds were in similar condition in both forest types. Our results suggest that the indirect effects of nest predation on maternal and offspring condition pose additional individual-level costs that have not been considered in the context of fragmentation studies. We discuss how predator-induced renesting could have additional demographic consequences by prolonging the breeding season and prompting seasonal interactions or carry-over effects that could impact populations.

The role of wildfire, prescribed fire, and mountain pine beetle infestations on the population dynamics of black-backed woodpeckers in the black hills, South Dakota.

Wildfire and mountain pine beetle infestations are naturally occurring disturbances in western North American forests. Black-backed woodpeckers (Picoides arcticus) are emblematic of the role these disturbances play in creating wildlife habitat, since they are strongly associated with recently-killed forests. However, management practices aimed at reducing the economic impact of natural disturbances can result in habitat loss for this species. Although black-backed woodpeckers occupy habitats created by wildfire, prescribed fire, and mountain pine beetle infestations, the relative value of these habitats remains unknown. We studied habitat-specific adult and juvenile survival probabilities and reproductive rates between April 2008 and August 2012 in the Black Hills, South Dakota. We estimated habitat-specific adult and juvenile survival probability with Bayesian multi-state models and habitat-specific reproductive success with Bayesian nest survival models. We calculated asymptotic population growth rates from estimated demographic rates with matrix projection models. Adult and juvenile survival and nest success were highest in habitat created by summer wildfire, intermediate in MPB infestations, and lowest in habitat created by fall prescribed fire. Mean posterior distributions of population growth rates indicated growing populations in habitat created by summer wildfire and declining populations in fall prescribed fire and mountain pine beetle infestations. Our finding that population growth rates were positive only in habitat created by summer wildfire underscores the need to maintain early post-wildfire habitat across the landscape. The lower growth rates in fall prescribed fire and MPB infestations may be attributed to differences in predator communities and food resources relative to summer wildfire.