A regulatory module mediating temperature control of cell-cell communication facilitates tree bud dormancy release.

The control of cell-cell communication via plasmodesmata (PD) plays a key role in plant development. In tree buds, low-temperature conditions (LT) induce a switch in plasmodesmata from a closed to an open state, which restores cell-to-cell communication in the shoot apex and releases dormancy. Using genetic and cell-biological approaches, we have identified a previously uncharacterized transcription factor, Low-temperature-Induced MADS-box 1 (LIM1), as an LT-induced, direct upstream activator of the gibberellic acid (GA) pathway. The LIM1-GA module mediates low temperature-induced plasmodesmata opening, by negatively regulating callose accumulation to promote dormancy release. LIM1 also activates expression of FT1 (FLOWERING LOCUS T), another LT-induced factor, with LIM1-FT1 forming a coherent feedforward loop converging on low-temperature regulation of gibberellin signaling in dormancy release. Mathematical modeling and experimental validation suggest that negative feedback regulation of LIM1 by gibberellin could play a crucial role in maintaining the robust temporal regulation of bud responses to low temperature. These results reveal genetic factors linking temperature control of cell-cell communication with regulation of seasonally-aligned growth crucial for adaptation of trees.

Weight-induced radial growth in plant stems depends on PIN3.

How multiple growth programs coordinate during development is a fundamental question in biology. During plant stem development, radial growth is continuously adjusted in response to longitudinal-growth-derived weight increase to guarantee stability.1,2,3 Here, we demonstrate that weight-stimulated stem radial growth depends on the auxin efflux carrier PIN3, which, upon weight increase, expands its cellular localization from the lower to the lateral sides of xylem parenchyma, phloem, procambium, and starch sheath cells, imposing a radial auxin flux that results in radial growth. Using the protein synthesis inhibitor cycloheximide (CHX) or the fluorescent endocytic tracer FM4-64, we reveal that this expansion of the PIN3 cellular localization domain occurs because weight increase breaks the balance between PIN3 biosynthesis and removal, favoring PIN3 biosynthesis. Experimentation using brefeldin A (BFA) treatments or arg1 and arl2 mutants further supports this conclusion. Analyses of CRISPR-Cas9 lines for Populus PIN3 orthologs reveals that PIN3 dependence of weight-induced radial growth is conserved at least in these woody species. Altogether, our work sheds new light on how longitudinal and radial growth coordinate during stem development.

Ectopic callose deposition into woody biomass modulates the nano-architecture of macrofibrils.

Plant biomass plays an increasingly important role in the circular bioeconomy, replacing non-renewable fossil resources. Genetic engineering of this lignocellulosic biomass could benefit biorefinery transformation chains by lowering economic and technological barriers to industrial processing. However, previous efforts have mostly targeted the major constituents of woody biomass: cellulose, hemicellulose and lignin. Here we report the engineering of wood structure through the introduction of callose, a polysaccharide novel to most secondary cell walls. Our multiscale analysis of genetically engineered poplar trees shows that callose deposition modulates cell wall porosity, water and lignin contents and increases the lignin-cellulose distance, ultimately resulting in substantially decreased biomass recalcitrance. We provide a model of the wood cell wall nano-architecture engineered to accommodate the hydrated callose inclusions. Ectopic polymer introduction into biomass manifests in new physico-chemical properties and offers new avenues when considering lignocellulose engineering.

Pickle Recruits Retinoblastoma Related 1 to Control Lateral Root Formation in Arabidopsis.

Lateral root (LR) formation is an example of a plant post-embryonic organogenesis event. LRs are issued from non-dividing cells entering consecutive steps of formative divisions, proliferation and elongation. The chromatin remodeling protein PICKLE (PKL) negatively regulates auxin-mediated LR formation through a mechanism that is not yet known. Here we show that PKL interacts with RETINOBLASTOMA-RELATED 1 (RBR1) to repress the LATERAL ORGAN BOUNDARIES-DOMAIN 16 (LBD16) promoter activity. Since LBD16 function is required for the formative division of LR founder cells, repression mediated by the PKL-RBR1 complex negatively regulates formative division and LR formation. Inhibition of LR formation by PKL-RBR1 is counteracted by auxin, indicating that, in addition to auxin-mediated transcriptional responses, the fine-tuned process of LR formation is also controlled at the chromatin level in an auxin-signaling dependent manner.

EARLY BUD-BREAK 1 and EARLY BUD-BREAK 3 control resumption of poplar growth after winter dormancy.

Bud-break is an economically and environmentally important process in trees and shrubs from boreal and temperate latitudes, but its molecular mechanisms are poorly understood. Here, we show that two previously reported transcription factors, EARLY BUD BREAK 1 (EBB1) and SHORT VEGETATIVE PHASE-Like (SVL) directly interact to control bud-break. EBB1 is a positive regulator of bud-break, whereas SVL is a negative regulator of bud-break. EBB1 directly and negatively regulates SVL expression. We further report the identification and characterization of the EBB3 gene. EBB3 is a temperature-responsive, epigenetically-regulated, positive regulator of bud-break that provides a direct link to activation of the cell cycle during bud-break. EBB3 is an AP2/ERF transcription factor that positively and directly regulates CYCLIND3.1 gene. Our results reveal the architecture of a putative regulatory module that links temperature-mediated control of bud-break with activation of cell cycle.

The chromatin-modifying protein HUB2 is involved in the regulation of lignin composition in xylem vessels.

PIRIN2 (PRN2) was earlier reported to suppress syringyl (S)-type lignin accumulation of xylem vessels of Arabidopsis thaliana. In the present study, we report yeast two-hybrid results supporting the interaction of PRN2 with HISTONE MONOUBIQUITINATION2 (HUB2) in Arabidopsis. HUB2 has been previously implicated in several plant developmental processes, but not in lignification. Interaction between PRN2 and HUB2 was verified by ß-galactosidase enzymatic and co-immunoprecipitation assays. HUB2 promoted the deposition of S-type lignin in the secondary cell walls of both stem and hypocotyl tissues, as analysed by pyrolysis-GC/MS. Chemical fingerprinting of individual xylem vessel cell walls by Raman and Fourier transform infrared microspectroscopy supported the function of HUB2 in lignin deposition. These results, together with a genetic analysis of the hub2 prn2 double mutant, support the antagonistic function of PRN2 and HUB2 in deposition of S-type lignin. Transcriptome analyses indicated the opposite regulation of the S-type lignin biosynthetic gene FERULATE-5-HYDROXYLASE1 by PRN2 and HUB2 as the underlying mechanism. PRN2 and HUB2 promoter activities co-localized in cells neighbouring the xylem vessel elements, suggesting that the S-type lignin-promoting function of HUB2 is antagonized by PRN2 for the benefit of the guaiacyl (G)-type lignin enrichment of the neighbouring xylem vessel elements.

A genetic framework for regulation and seasonal adaptation of shoot architecture in hybrid aspen.

Shoot architecture is critical for optimizing plant adaptation and productivity. In contrast with annuals, branching in perennials native to temperate and boreal regions must be coordinated with seasonal growth cycles. How branching is coordinated with seasonal growth is poorly understood. We identified key components of the genetic network that controls branching and its regulation by seasonal cues in the model tree hybrid aspen. Our results demonstrate that branching and its control by seasonal cues is mediated by mutually antagonistic action of aspen orthologs of the flowering regulators TERMINAL FLOWER 1 (TFL1) and APETALA1 (LIKE APETALA 1/LAP1). LAP1 promotes branching through local action in axillary buds. LAP1 acts in a cytokinin-dependent manner, stimulating expression of the cell-cycle regulator AIL1 and suppressing BRANCHED1 expression to promote branching. Short photoperiod and low temperature, the major seasonal cues heralding winter, suppress branching by simultaneous activation of TFL1 and repression of the LAP1 pathway. Our results thus reveal the genetic network mediating control of branching and its regulation by environmental cues facilitating integration of branching with seasonal growth control in perennial trees.

Branching Regulator BRC1 Mediates Photoperiodic Control of Seasonal Growth in Hybrid Aspen.

Cessation of growth as winter approaches is a key adaptive trait for survival of perennial plants, such as long-lived trees native to boreal and temperate regions [1, 2]. The timing of growth cessation in these plants is controlled by photoperiodic cues. As shown recently, perception of growth-repressive short photoperiod (SP) mediated via components of circadian clock results in downregulation of the tree ortholog of Arabidopsis flowering regulator FLOWERING LOCUS T (FT), FT2 [3, 4]. Downregulation of FT2 results in suppression of downstream components LAP1 (orthologous to the Arabidopsis floral meristem identity gene APETALA1) and AIL1 (orthologous to AINTEGUMENTA in Arabidopsis), culminating in induction of growth cessation and bud set [5-7]. Results presented here reveal that, in addition to the CO/FT pathway, a photoperiodically controlled negative feedback loop involving a tree ortholog of Arabidopsis BRANCHED1 (BRC1) (a member of TEOSINTE BRANCHED 1, CYCLOIDEA, PCF family), LAP1, and FT2 participates in regulation of seasonal growth in the model tree hybrid aspen. In growth-promotive long photoperiod, LAP1 suppresses expression of BRC1, but upon perception of growth-repressive SP, downregulation of LAP1 de-represses expression of its downstream target BRC1. BRC1 physically interacts with FT2, and BRC1-FT interaction further reinforces the effect of SP and triggers growth cessation by antagonizing FT action. Accordingly, BRC1 gain and loss of function result in early and retarded growth cessation responses to SP, respectively. Thus, these results reveal a regulatory feedback loop that reinforces responses to SP and induction of seasonal growth cessation.

Long-range mobile signals mediate seasonal control of shoot growth.

In perennial plants, seasonal shifts provide cues that control adaptive growth patterns of the shoot apex. However, where these seasonal cues are sensed and communicated to the shoot apex remains unknown. We demonstrate that systemic signals from leaves play key roles in seasonal control of shoot growth in model tree hybrid aspen. Grafting experiments reveal that the tree ortholog of Arabidopsis flowering time regulator FLOWERING LOCUS T (FT) and the plant hormone gibberellic acid (GA) systemically convey seasonal cues to the shoot apex. GA (unlike FT) also acts locally in shoot apex, downstream of FT in seasonal growth control. At the shoot apex, antagonistic factors-LAP1, a target of FT and the FT antagonist TERMINAL FLOWER 1 (TFL1)-act locally to promote and suppress seasonal growth, respectively. These data reveal seasonal changes perceived in leaves that are communicated to the shoot apex by systemic signals that, in concert with locally acting components, control adaptive growth patterns.

Abscisic acid signalling mediates biomass trade-off and allocation in poplar.

Abscisic acid (ABA) is a well known stress hormone regulating drought adaptation of plants. Here, we hypothesised that genetic engineering of genes involved in ABA stress signalling and photoperiodic regulation affected drought resistance by trade-off with biomass production in perennial poplar trees. We grew Populus tremula × tremuloides wild-type (T89) and various transgenic lines (two transformation events of 35S::abi1-1, 35S::RCAR, RCAR:RNAi, 35S::ABI3, 35S::AREB3, 35S::FDL1, FDL1:RNAi, 35S::FDL2 and FDL2:RNAi) outdoors and exposed them to drought in the second growth period. After the winter, the surviving lines showed a huge variation in stomatal conductance, leaf size, whole-plant leaf area, tree height, stem diameter, and biomass. Whole-plant leaf area was a strong predictor for woody biomass production. The 35S::AREB3 lines were compromised in biomass production under well irrigated conditions compared with wild-type poplars but were resilient to drought. ABA signalling regulated FDL1 and FDL2 expression under stress. Poplar lines overexpressing FDL1 or FDL2 were drought-sensitive; they shed leaves and lost root biomass, whereas the FDL RNAi lines showed higher biomass allocation to roots under drought. These results assign a new function in drought acclimation to FDL genes aside from photoperiodic regulation. Our results imply a critical role for ABA-mediated processes in balancing biomass production and climate adaptation.

A Tree Ortholog of SHORT VEGETATIVE PHASE Floral Repressor Mediates Photoperiodic Control of Bud Dormancy.

Perennials in boreal and temperate ecosystems display seasonally synchronized growth. In many tree species, prior to the advent of winter, exposure to photoperiods shorter than a critical threshold for growth (short days; SDs) induces growth cessation, culminating in the formation of an apical bud that encloses the shoot apical meristem and arrested leaf primordia [1-4]. Following growth cessation, subsequent exposure to SDs induces transition to dormancy in the shoot apex [5]. Establishment of dormancy is crucial for winter survival and is characterized by the inability of the shoot meristem to respond to growth-promotive signals [6]. Recently, SDs were shown to induce bud dormancy by activating the abscisic acid (ABA) pathway. ABA upregulates expression of CALLOSE SYNTHASE 1 (CALS1) and suppresses glucanases that break down callose to induce the blockage of intracellular conduits (plasmodesmata; PDs) with callosic plugs called "dormancy sphincters" that by restricting access to growth-promotive signals promote dormancy [7]. However, components downstream of ABA in dormancy regulation remain largely unknown, and thus there are significant gaps in our understanding of photoperiodic control of bud dormancy. Here we demonstrate that SVL, orthologous to Arabidopsis floral repressor SHORT VEGETATIVE PHASE (SVP), is a mediator of photoperiodic control of dormancy downstream of the ABA pathway in hybrid aspen. SVL downregulation impairs dormancy, whereas SVL overexpression suppresses dormancy defects resulting from ABA insensitivity. Downstream, SVL induces callose synthase expression and negatively regulates the gibberellic acid (GA) pathway to promote dormancy, thus revealing the regulatory module mediating photoperiodic control of dormancy by ABA.

A genetic network mediating the control of bud break in hybrid aspen.

In boreal and temperate ecosystems, temperature signal regulates the reactivation of growth (bud break) in perennials in the spring. Molecular basis of temperature-mediated control of bud break is poorly understood. Here we identify a genetic network mediating the control of bud break in hybrid aspen. The key components of this network are transcription factor SHORT VEGETATIVE PHASE-LIKE (SVL), closely related to Arabidopsis floral repressor SHORT VEGETATIVE PHASE, and its downstream target TCP18, a tree homolog of a branching regulator in Arabidopsis. SVL and TCP18 are downregulated by low temperature. Genetic evidence demonstrates their role as negative regulators of bud break. SVL mediates bud break by antagonistically acting on gibberellic acid (GA) and abscisic acid (ABA) pathways, which function as positive and negative regulators of bud break, respectively. Thus, our results reveal the mechanistic basis for temperature-cued seasonal control of a key phenological event in perennial plants.

Genome Wide Binding Site Analysis Reveals Transcriptional Coactivation of Cytokinin-Responsive Genes by DELLA Proteins.

The ability of plants to provide a plastic response to environmental cues relies on the connectivity between signaling pathways. DELLA proteins act as hubs that relay environmental information to the multiple transcriptional circuits that control growth and development through physical interaction with transcription factors from different families. We have analyzed the presence of one DELLA protein at the Arabidopsis genome by chromatin immunoprecipitation coupled to large-scale sequencing and we find that it binds at the promoters of multiple genes. Enrichment analysis shows a strong preference for cis elements recognized by specific transcription factor families. In particular, we demonstrate that DELLA proteins are recruited by type-B ARABIDOPSIS RESPONSE REGULATORS (ARR) to the promoters of cytokinin-regulated genes, where they act as transcriptional co-activators. The biological relevance of this mechanism is underpinned by the necessity of simultaneous presence of DELLAs and ARRs to restrict root meristem growth and to promote photomorphogenesis.

Dual role of tree florigen activation complex component FD in photoperiodic growth control and adaptive response pathways.

A complex consisting of evolutionarily conserved FD, flowering locus T (FT) proteins is a regulator of floral transition. Intriguingly, FT orthologs are also implicated in developmental transitions distinct from flowering, such as photoperiodic control of bulbing in onions, potato tuberization, and growth cessation in trees. However, whether an FT-FD complex participates in these transitions and, if so, its mode of action, are unknown. We identified two closely related FD homologs, FD-like 1 (FDL1) and FD-like 2 (FDL2), in the model tree hybrid aspen. Using gain of function and RNAi-suppressed FDL1 and FDL2 transgenic plants, we show that FDL1 and FDL2 have distinct functions and a complex consisting of FT and FDL1 mediates in photoperiodic control of seasonal growth. The downstream target of the FT-FD complex in photoperiodic control of growth is Like AP1 (LAP1), a tree ortholog of the floral meristem identity gene APETALA1. Intriguingly, FDL1 also participates in the transcriptional control of adaptive response and bud maturation pathways, independent of its interaction with FT, presumably via interaction with abscisic acid insensitive 3 (ABI3) transcription factor, a component of abscisic acid (ABA) signaling. Our data reveal that in contrast to its primary role in flowering, FD has dual roles in the photoperiodic control of seasonal growth and stress tolerance in trees. Thus, the functions of FT and FD have diversified during evolution, and FD homologs have acquired roles that are independent of their interaction with FT.

Large-scale identification of gibberellin-related transcription factors defines group VII ETHYLENE RESPONSE FACTORS as functional DELLA partners.

DELLA proteins are the master negative regulators in gibberellin (GA) signaling acting in the nucleus as transcriptional regulators. The current view of DELLA action indicates that their activity relies on the physical interaction with transcription factors (TFs). Therefore, the identification of TFs through which DELLAs regulate GA responses is key to understanding these responses from a mechanistic point of view. Here, we have determined the TF interactome of the Arabidopsis (Arabidopsis thaliana) DELLA protein GIBBERELLIN INSENSITIVE and screened a collection of conditional TF overexpressors in search of those that alter GA sensitivity. As a result, we have found RELATED TO APETALA2.3, an ethylene-induced TF belonging to the group VII ETHYLENE RESPONSE FACTOR of the APETALA2/ethylene responsive element binding protein superfamily, as a DELLA interactor with physiological relevance in the context of apical hook development. The combination of transactivation assays and chromatin immunoprecipitation indicates that the interaction with GIBBERELLIN INSENSITIVE impairs the activity of RELATED TO APETALA2.3 on the target promoters. This mechanism represents a unique node in the cross regulation between the GA and ethylene signaling pathways controlling differential growth during apical hook development.

A tree ortholog of APETALA1 mediates photoperiodic control of seasonal growth.

BACKGROUND: Photoperiodic control of development plays a key role in adaptation of plants to seasonal changes. A signaling module consisting of CONSTANS (CO) and FLOWERING LOCUS T (FT) mediates in photoperiodic control of a variety of developmental transitions (e.g., flowering, tuberization, and seasonal growth cessation in trees). How this conserved CO/FT module can mediate in the photoperiodic control of diverse unrelated developmental programs is poorly understood. RESULTS: We show that Like-AP1 (LAP1), a tree ortholog of Arabidopsis floral meristem identity gene APETALA1 (AP1), mediates in photoperiodic control of seasonal growth cessation downstream of the CO/FT module in hybrid aspen. Using LAP1 overexpressors and RNAi-suppressed transgenic trees, we demonstrate that short day (SD)-mediated downregulation of LAP1 expression is required for growth cessation. In contrast with AP1 targets in flowering, LAP1 acts on AINTEGUMENTA-like 1 transcription factor, which is implicated in SD-mediated growth cessation. Intriguingly, unlike AP1 in Arabidopsis, ectopic expression of LAP1 fails to induce early flowering in hybrid aspen trees. CONCLUSIONS: These results indicate that AP1 ortholog in trees has acquired a novel function in photoperiodic regulation of seasonal growth. Thus, photoperiodic signaling pathway may have diverged downstream of AP1/LAP1 rather than the CO/FT module during evolution. Moreover, control of flowering by the CO/FT module can be uncoupled from its role in photoperiodic control of seasonal growth in trees. Thus, our findings can explain mechanistically how a conserved signaling module can mediate in the control of a highly diverse set of developmental transitions by a similar input signal, namely photoperiod.

A bistable circuit involving SCARECROW-RETINOBLASTOMA integrates cues to inform asymmetric stem cell division.

In plants, where cells cannot migrate, asymmetric cell divisions (ACDs) must be confined to the appropriate spatial context. We investigate tissue-generating asymmetric divisions in a stem cell daughter within the Arabidopsis root. Spatial restriction of these divisions requires physical binding of the stem cell regulator SCARECROW (SCR) by the RETINOBLASTOMA-RELATED (RBR) protein. In the stem cell niche, SCR activity is counteracted by phosphorylation of RBR through a cyclinD6;1-CDK complex. This cyclin is itself under transcriptional control of SCR and its partner SHORT ROOT (SHR), creating a robust bistable circuit with either high or low SHR-SCR complex activity. Auxin biases this circuit by promoting CYCD6;1 transcription. Mathematical modeling shows that ACDs are only switched on after integration of radial and longitudinal information, determined by SHR and auxin distribution, respectively. Coupling of cell-cycle progression to protein degradation resets the circuit, resulting in a "flip flop" that constrains asymmetric cell division to the stem cell region.

Cell-cycle control as a target for calcium, hormonal and developmental signals: the role of phosphorylation in the retinoblastoma-centred pathway.

BACKGROUND: During the life cycle of plants, both embryogenic and post-embryogenic growth are essentially based on cell division and cell expansion that are under the control of inherited developmental programmes modified by hormonal and environmental stimuli. Considering either stimulation or inhibition of plant growth, the key role of plant hormones in the modification of cell division activities or in the initiation of differentiation is well supported by experimental data. At the same time there is only limited insight into the molecular events that provide linkage between the regulation of cell-cycle progression and hormonal and developmental control. Studies indicate that there are several alternative ways by which hormonal signalling networks can influence cell division parameters and establish functional links between regulatory pathways of cell-cycle progression and genes and protein complexes involved in organ development. SCOPE: An overview is given here of key components in plant cell division control as acceptors of hormonal and developmental signals during organ formation and growth. Selected examples are presented to highlight the potential role of Ca(2+)-signalling, the complex actions of auxin and cytokinins, regulation by transcription factors and alteration of retinoblastoma-related proteins by phosphorylation. CONCLUSIONS: Auxins and abscisic acid can directly influence expression of cyclin, cyclin-dependent kinase (CDK) genes and activities of CDK complexes. D-type cyclins are primary targets for cytokinins and over-expression of CyclinD3;1 can enhance auxin responses in roots. A set of auxin-activated genes (AXR1-ARGOS-ANT) controls cell number and organ size through modification of CyclinD3;1 gene expression. The SHORT ROOT (SHR) and SCARECROW (SCR) transcriptional factors determine root patterning by activation of the CYCD6;1 gene. Over-expression of the EBP1 gene (plant homologue of the ErbB-3 epidermal growth factor receptor-binding protein) increased biomass by auxin-dependent activation of both D- and B-type cyclins. The direct involvement of auxin-binding protein (ABP1) in the entry into the cell cycle and the regulation of leaf size and morphology is based on the transcriptional control of D-cyclins and retinoblastoma-related protein (RBR) interacting with inhibitory E2FC transcriptional factor. The central role of RBRs in cell-cycle progression is well documented by a variety of experimental approaches. Their function is phosphorylation-dependent and both RBR and phospho-RBR proteins are present in interphase and mitotic phase cells. Immunolocalization studies showed the presence of phospho-RBR protein in spots of interphase nuclei or granules in mitotic prophase cells. The Ca(2+)-dependent phosphorylation events can be accomplished by the calcium-dependent, calmodulin-independent or calmodulin-like domain protein kinases (CDPKs/CPKs) phosphorylating the CDK inhibitor protein (KRP). Dephosphorylation of the phospho-RBR protein by PP2A phosphatase is regulated by a Ca(2+)-binding subunit.

Immunodetection of retinoblastoma-related protein and its phosphorylated form in interphase and mitotic alfalfa cells.

Plant retinoblastoma-related (RBR) proteins are primarily considered as key regulators of G(1)/S phase transition, with functional roles in a variety of cellular events during plant growth and organ development. Polyclonal antibody against the C-terminal region of the Arabidopsis RBR1 protein also specifically recognizes the alfalfa 115 kDa MsRBR protein, as shown by the antigen competition assay. The MsRBR protein was detected in all cell cycle phases, with a moderate increase in samples representing G(2)/M cells. Antibody against the human phospho-pRb peptide (Ser807/811) cross-reacted with the same 115 kDa MsRBR protein and with the in vitro phosphorylated MsRBR protein C-terminal fragment. Phospho-MsRBR protein was low in G(1) cells. Its amount increased upon entry into the S phase and remained high during the G(2)/M phases. Roscovitine treatment abolished the activity of alfalfa MsCDKA1;1 and MsCDKB2;1, and the phospho-MsRBR protein level was significantly decreased in the treated cells. Colchicine block increased the detected levels of both forms of MsRBR protein. Reduced levels of the MsRBR protein in cells at stationary phase or grown in hormone-free medium can be a sign of the division-dependent presence of plant RBR proteins. Immunolocalization of the phospho-MsRBR protein indicated spots of variable number and size in the labelled interphase nuclei and high signal intensity of nuclear granules in prophase. Structures similar to phospho-MsRBR proteins cannot be recognized in later mitotic phases. Based on the presented western blot and immunolocalization data, the possible involvement of RBR proteins in G(2)/M phase regulation in plant cells is discussed.

Dicot and monocot plants differ in retinoblastoma-related protein subfamilies.

The present study supports the view that the retinoblastoma functions are shared by two distinct retinoblastoma-related (RBR) protein subfamilies in the monocot cereal species, whereas dicot plants have only a single RBR protein. Genes encoding RBR proteins were identified and characterized in alfalfa (Medicago sativa), rice (Oryza sativa), and wheat (Triticum aestivum). The alfalfa MsRBR gene encodes a new member of the dicot RBR proteins (subfamily A). A comparison was made of two rice genes, OsRBR1 (subfamily B) and OsRBR2 (subfamily C), which exhibit differences in exon-intron organization and share only 52% amino acid sequence identity. The plant RBR proteins can be categorized into three distinct subfamilies, in which the similarity between members is greater than the similarity to other RBR proteins from the same species. Comparison of the transcript levels in various tissues revealed that the expression of the OsRBR1 gene was high in embryos or cultured cells and gradually decreased from the basal region to the tip of the leaves. The OsRBR2 gene displayed more transcripts in differentiated tissues, such as leaves and roots. In contrast, the mRNA level of the MsRBR gene did not differ significantly in either mature leaves or cultured cells. The results of yeast two-hybrid pairwise interaction assays demonstrated differences between the rice RBR variants in the interactions with the phosphatase 2A B'' regulatory subunit and an unknown protein. The in silico and functional data presented in this work highlight considerable differences between dicot and monocot species in the retinoblastoma regulatory pathways and permit an improved classification of RBR proteins in higher plants.