Dual conformation of the ligand induces the partial agonistic activity of retinoid X receptor α (RXRα).

1-[(3,5,5,8,8-pentamethyl-5,6,7,8-tetrahydronaphthalen-2-yl)amino]benzotriazole-5-carboxylic acid (CBt-PMN), a partial agonist of retinoid X receptor (RXR), has attracted attention due to its potential to treat type 2 diabetes and central nervous system diseases with reduced adverse effects of existing full agonists. Herein, we report the crystal structure of CBt-PMN-bound ligand-binding domain of human RXRα (hRXRα) and its biochemical characterization. Interestingly, the structure is a tetramer in nature, in which CBt-PMNs are clearly found binding in two different conformations. The dynamics of the hRXRα/CBt-PMN complex examined using molecular dynamics simulations suggest that the flexibility of the AF-2 interface depends on the conformation of the ligand. These facts reveal that the dual conformation of CBt-PMN in the complex is probably the reason behind its partial agonistic activity.

Benchmark Analysis of Native and Artificial NAD+-Dependent Enzymes Generated by a Sequence-Based Design Method with or without Phylogenetic Data.

The expansion of protein sequence databases has enabled us to design artificial proteins by sequence-based design methods, such as full-consensus design (FCD) and ancestral-sequence reconstruction (ASR). Artificial proteins with enhanced activity levels compared with native ones can potentially be generated by such methods, but successful design is rare because preparing a sequence library by curating the database and selecting a method is difficult. Utilizing a curated library prepared by reducing conservation energies, we successfully designed two artificial l-threonine 3-dehydrogenases (SDR-TDH) with higher activity levels than native SDR-TDH, FcTDH-N1, and AncTDH, using FCD and ASR, respectively. The artificial SDR-TDHs had excellent thermal stability and NAD+ recognition compared to native SDR-TDH from Cupriavidus necator (CnTDH); the melting temperatures of FcTDH-N1 and AncTDH were about 10 and 5 °C higher than that of CnTDH, respectively, and the dissociation constants toward NAD+ of FcTDH-N1 and AncTDH were 2- and 7-fold lower than that of CnTDH, respectively. Enzymatic efficiency of the artificial SDR-TDHs were comparable to that of CnTDH. Crystal structures of FcTDH-N1 and AncTDH were determined at 2.8 and 2.1 Å resolution, respectively. Structural and MD simulation analysis of the SDR-TDHs indicated that only the flexibility at specific regions was changed, suggesting that multiple mutations introduced in the artificial SDR-TDHs altered their flexibility and thereby affected their enzymatic properties. Benchmark analysis of the SDR-TDHs indicated that both FCD and ASR can generate highly functional proteins if a curated library is prepared appropriately.

Halophilic mechanism of the enzymatic function of a moderately halophilic dihydrofolate reductase from Haloarcula japonica strain TR-1.

Dihydrofolate (DHF) reductase coded by a plasmid of the extremely halophilic archaeon Haloarcula japonica strain TR-1 (HjDHFR P1) shows moderate halophilicity on enzymatic activity at pH 6.0, although there is no significant effect of NaCl on its secondary structure. To elucidate the salt-activation and -inactivation mechanisms of this enzyme, we investigated the effects of pH and salt concentration, deuterium isotope effect, steady-state kinetics, and rapid-phase ligand-binding kinetics. Enzyme activity was increased eightfold by the addition of 500 mM NaCl at pH 6.0, fourfold by 250 mM at pH 8.0, and became independent of salt concentration at pH 10.0. Full isotope effects observed at pH 10.0 under 0-1000 mM NaCl indicated that the rate of hydride transfer, which was the rate-determining step at the basic pH region, was independent of salt concentration. Conversely, rapid-phase ligand-binding experiments showed that the amplitude of the DHF-binding reaction increased and the tetrahydrofolate (THF)-releasing rate decreased with increasing NaCl concentration. These results suggested that the salt-activation mechanism of HjDHFR P1 is via the population change of the anion-unbound and anion-bound conformers, which are binding-incompetent and -competent conformations for DHF, respectively, while that of salt inactivation is via deceleration of the THF-releasing rate, which is the rate-determining step at the neutral pH region.

Vacuum-Ultraviolet Circular Dichroism Spectra of Escherichia coli Dihydrofolate Reductase and Its Mutants: Contributions of Phenylalanine and Tyrosine Side Chains and Exciton Coupling of Two Tryptophan Side Chains.

Vacuum-ultraviolet (VUV) circular dichroism (CD) spectroscopy has recently been used for secondary structure analysis of proteins; however, the contribution of aromatic side chains to protein VUV CD spectra is unresolved. In this report, VUV CD spectra of 10 Escherichia coli dihydrofolate reductase (DHFR) mutants, in which each phenylalanine or tyrosine residue was mutated to leucine, were measured down to 175 nm at 25 °C and pH 8.0 to elucidate the contributions of these aromatic side chains to the high-energy transitions of peptide bonds. The VUV CD spectra of these mutants were different from the spectrum of the wild-type protein, indicating that the contribution of the phenylalanine and tyrosine side chains of DHFR extends to the VUV region. Furthermore, the VUV CD spectrum and the folate- or NADP(+)-induced spectral change of F103L mutant DHFR indicated a modification and regeneration of exciton coupling between the Trp47 and Trp74 side chains, respectively, suggesting that exciton coupling may also contribute to the CD spectrum of DHFR in the VUV region. These results should be useful for theoretically characterizing the contribution of aromatic side chains to protein CD spectra, leading to the improvement of protein secondary-structure analysis by VUV CD spectroscopy.

Effects of salt on the structure, stability, and function of a halophilic dihydrofolate reductase from a hyperhalophilic archaeon, Haloarcula japonica strain TR-1.

The effects of salt on the structure, stability, and enzymatic function of a novel dihydrofolate reductase (HjDHFR P1) from a hyperhalophilic archaeon, Haloarcula japonica strain TR-1 living in a Japanese saltern, were studied using ultraviolet absorption, circular dichroism (CD), and fluorescence spectroscopy. HjDHFR P1 had a partial structure at pH 8.0 in the absence of NaCl, and the addition of NaCl (0-500 mM concentration) induced significant structural formation to HjDHFR P1. The addition of NADPH, which is a coenzyme for its catalytic reaction, and lowering the pH from 8 to 6 also induced the same CD change, indicating the formation of the NADPH-binding site in HjDHFR P1. The NaCl dependence of thermal and urea-induced unfolding measurements suggested that protein stability increased depending on NaCl concentration regardless of structural formation, and HjDHFR P1 achieved the same stability as Escherichia coli DHFR at 750 mM NaCl. Halophilic characteristics were also observed for enzymatic function, although its structure had already formed under the conditions that enzymatic activity was measured at due to the presence of NADPH. These results suggest that the halophilic mechanism on structural stability and function was caused by factors other than structural formation, which are suggested to be the contributions of preferential interactions between the protein and salt ions and the specific binding of salt ions.

Solvent environments significantly affect the enzymatic function of Escherichia coli dihydrofolate reductase: comparison of wild-type protein and active-site mutant D27E.

To investigate the contribution of solvent environments to the enzymatic function of Escherichia coli dihydrofolate reductase (DHFR), the salt-, pH-, and pressure-dependence of the enzymatic function of the wild-type protein were compared with those of the active-site mutant D27E in relation to their structure and stability. The salt concentration-dependence of enzymatic activity indicated that inorganic cations bound to and inhibited the activity of wild-type DHFR at neutral pH. The BaCl2 concentration-dependence of the (1)H-(15)N HSQC spectra of the wild-type DHFR-folate binary complex showed that the cation-binding site was located adjacent to the Met20 loop. The insensitivity of the D27E mutant to univalent cations, the decreased optimal pH for its enzymatic activity, and the increased Km and Kd values for its substrate dihydrofolate suggested that the substrate-binding cleft of the mutant was slightly opened to expose the active-site side chain to the solvent. The marginally increased fluorescence intensity and decreased volume change due to unfolding of the mutant also supported this structural change or the modified cavity and hydration. Surprisingly, the enzymatic activity of the mutant increased with pressurization up to 250MPa together with negative activation volumes of -4.0 or -4.8mL/mol, depending on the solvent system, while that of the wild-type was decreased and had positive activation volumes of 6.1 or 7.7mL/mol. These results clearly indicate that the insertion of a single methylene at the active site could substantially change the enzymatic reaction mechanism of DHFR, and solvent environments play important roles in the function of this enzyme.

Thermodynamic and functional characteristics of deep-sea enzymes revealed by pressure effects.

Hydrostatic pressure analysis is an ideal approach for studying protein dynamics and hydration. The development of full ocean depth submersibles and high pressure biological techniques allows us to investigate enzymes from deep-sea organisms at the molecular level. The aim of this review was to overview the thermodynamic and functional characteristics of deep-sea enzymes as revealed by pressure axis analysis after giving a brief introduction to the thermodynamic principles underlying the effects of pressure on the structural stability and function of enzymes.