Staphylococcus spp. in Salad Vegetables: Biodiversity, Antimicrobial Resistance, and First Identification of Methicillin-Resistant Strains in the United Arab Emirates Food Supply.

Contamination of leafy greens with Staphylococcus spp. can occur at various supply chain stages, from farm to table. This study comprehensively analyzes the species diversity, antimicrobial resistance, and virulence factors of Staphylococci in salad vegetables from markets in the United Arab Emirates (UAE). A total of 343 salad items were sampled from three major cities in the UAE from May 2022 to February 2023 and tested for the presence of Staphylococcus spp. using standard culture-based methods. Species-level identification was achieved using matrix-assisted laser desorption ionization-time of flight mass spectrometry. Antimicrobial susceptibility testing was conducted using the VITEK-2 system with AST-P592 cards. Additionally, whole genome sequencing (WGS) of ten selected isolates was performed to characterize antimicrobial resistance determinants and toxin-related virulence factors. Nine Staphylococcus species were identified in 37.6% (129/343) of the tested salad items, with coagulase-negative staphylococci (CoNS) dominating (87.6% [113/129]) and S. xylosus being the most prevalent (89.4% [101/113]). S. aureus was found in 4.6% (14/343) of the salad samples, averaging 1.7 log10 CFU/g. One isolate was confirmed as methicillin-resistant S. aureus, harboring the mecA gene. It belonged to multi-locus sequence type ST-672 and spa type t384 and was isolated from imported fresh dill. Among the characterized S. xylosus (n = 45), 13.3% tested positive in the cefoxitin screen test, and 6.6% were non-susceptible to oxacillin. WGS analysis revealed that the cytolysin gene (cylR2) was the only toxin-associated factor found in S. xylosus, while a methicillin-sensitive S. aureus isolate harbored the Panton-Valentine Leukocidin (LukSF/PVL) gene. This research is the first to document the presence of methicillin-resistant S. aureus in the UAE food chain. Furthermore, S. xylosus (a coagulase-negative staphylococcus not commonly screened in food) has demonstrated phenotypic resistance to clinically relevant antimicrobials. This underscores the need for vigilant monitoring of antimicrobial resistance in bacterial contaminants, whether pathogenic or commensal, at the human-food interface.

High prevalence and genomic features of multidrug-resistant Salmonella enterica isolated from chilled broiler chicken on retail sale in the United Arab Emirates.

Non-typhoidal Salmonella represents a significant global concern for food safety and One Health. Despite the United Arab Emirates (UAE) being a leading consumer of chicken meat globally, there is a lack of comprehensive understanding regarding the prevalence and genomic characteristics of Salmonella within the country. This study aims to address this gap by conducting a thorough analysis of Salmonella prevalence, antimicrobial resistance, and genomic profiles of isolates obtained from whole broiler carcasses retailed under chilled conditions in the UAE. Our findings reveal that Salmonella was detected in 41.2 % (130/315) of the sampled chilled broiler carcasses, with notable variability observed among samples sourced from six different companies. Phenotypic antimicrobial resistance (AMR) testing, among 105 isolates, highlighted high resistance rates to tetracycline (97.1 %), nalidixic acid (93.3 %), ampicillin (92.4 %), azithromycin (75.2 %), ciprofloxacin (63.8 %), and ceftriaxone (54.3 %). Furthermore, a concerning 99 % (104/105) of the isolates exhibited multidrug resistance. Whole-genome sequencing (WGS) of 60 isolates identified five serovars, with S. infantis/Sequence Type (ST) 32 (55 %) and S. Minnesota/ST-458 (28.3 %) being the most prevalent. WGS analysis unveiled 34 genes associated with antimicrobial resistance, including mcr-1.1 (only in two isolates), conferring resistance to colistin. The two major serovars, Infantis and Minnesota, exhibited significant variation (P-values <0.001) in the distribution of major AMR genes (aadA1, blaCMY-2, blaSHV-12, qnrB19, qnrS1, sul1, and sul2). Notably, the gene qacEdelta, conferring resistance to quaternary ammonium compounds commonly found in disinfectants, was universally present in all S. Infantis isolates (n = 33), compared to only one S. Minnesota isolate. Additionally, all S. Infantis isolates harbored the IncFIB (pN55391) plasmid replicon type. Major serovars exhibited distinct distributions of antimicrobial resistance genes, underscoring the importance of serovar-specific surveillance. These findings emphasize the critical need for continuous surveillance and intervention measures to address Salmonella contamination risks in poultry products, providing valuable insights for public health and regulatory strategies not only in the UAE but also globally.

Veterinary Drug Residues in the Food Chain as an Emerging Public Health Threat: Sources, Analytical Methods, Health Impacts, and Preventive Measures.

Veterinary medications are necessary for both contemporary animal husbandry and food production, but their residues can linger in foods obtained from animals and pose a dangerous human risk. In this review, we aim to highlight the sources, occurrence, human exposure pathways, and human health effects of drug residues in food-animal products. Following the usage of veterinary medications, pharmacologically active compounds known as drug residues can be found in food, the environment, or animals. They can cause major health concerns to people, including antibiotic resistance development, the development of cancer, teratogenic effects, hypersensitivity, and disruption of normal intestinal flora. Drug residues in animal products can originate from variety of sources, including water or food contamination, extra-label drug use, and ignoring drug withdrawal periods. This review also examines how humans can be exposed to drug residues through drinking water, food, air, and dust, and discusses various analytical techniques for identifying these residues in food. Furthermore, we suggest some potential solutions to prevent or reduce drug residues in animal products and human exposure pathways, such as implementing withdrawal periods, monitoring programs, education campaigns, and new technologies that are crucial for safeguarding public health. This review underscores the urgency of addressing veterinary drug residues as a significant and emerging public health threat, calling for collaborative efforts from researchers, policymakers, and industry stakeholders to develop sustainable solutions that ensure the safety of the global food supply chain.

Genomics Characterization of Colistin Resistant Escherichia coli from Chicken Meat-the First Report in the United Arab Emirates.

Plasmid-mediated colistin resistance is an emerging One Health challenge at the human-food-environment interface. In this study, 12 colistin-resistant Escherichia coli carrying mcr-1.1 gene were characterized using whole-genome sequencing. This is the first report from locally produced chicken meat in the United Arab Emirates. The characterized isolates harbored virulence-associated factors ranging from 4 to 17 genes per isolate. The multilocus sequence type 1011 was identified in 5 (41.6%) isolates. Six (50.0%) of the isolates harbored blaCTX-M-55. All of the E. coli isolates contained Incl2 plasmids. This study highlights for the first time chicken meat as a potential reservoir of mcr-1.1 carrying E. coli in the UAE. This study has implications for food safety and underscores the need for comprehensive surveillance strategies to monitor the spread of colistin resistance. Results presented in this short communication address knowledge gaps on the epidemiology of plasmid-mediated colistin resistance in the Middle East food production chain.

Genomic profiling of extended-spectrum ß-lactamase-producing Escherichia coli from Pets in the United Arab Emirates: Unveiling colistin resistance mediated by mcr-1.1 and its probable transmission from chicken meat - A One Health perspective.

BACKGROUND: The United Arab Emirates (UAE) has witnessed rapid urbanization and a surge in pet ownership, sparking concerns about the possible transfer of antimicrobial resistance (AMR) from pets to humans and the environment. This study delves into the whole-genome sequencing analysis of ESBL-producing E. coli strains from healthy cats and dogs in the UAE, which exhibit multidrug resistance (MDR). Additionally, it provides a genomic exploration of the mobile colistin resistance gene mcr-1.1, marking the first instance of its detection in Middle Eastern pets. METHODS: We investigate 17 ESBL-producing E. coli strains from healthy UAE pets using WGS and bioinformatics analysis to identify genes encoding virulence factors, assign diverse typing schemes to the isolates, and scrutinize the presence of AMR genes. Furthermore, we characterized plasmid contigs housing the mcr-1.1 gene and conducted phylogenomic analysis to evaluate their relatedness to previously identified UAE isolates. RESULTS: Our study unveiled a variety of virulence factor-encoding genes within the isolates, with fimH emerging as the most prevalent. Regarding ß-lactamase resistance genes, the blaCTX group 1 gene family predominated, with CTX-M-15 found in 52.9% (9/17) of the isolates, followed by CTX-M-55 in 29.4% (5/17). These isolates were categorized into multiple sequence types (STs), with the epidemic ST131 being the most frequent. The presence of the mcr-1.1 gene, linked to colistin resistance, was confirmed in two isolates. These isolates belonged to ST1011 and displayed distinct profiles of ß-lactamase resistance genes. Phylogenomic analysis revealed close connections between the isolates and those from chicken meat in the UAE. CONCLUSION: Our study underscores the presence of MDR ESBL-producing E. coli in UAE pets. The identification of mcr-1.1-carrying isolates warrants the urgency of comprehensive AMR surveillance and highlights the role of companion animals in AMR epidemiology. These findings underscore the significance of adopting a One Health approach to mitigate AMR transmission risks effectively.

Pathogenic E. coli in the Food Chain across the Arab Countries: A Descriptive Review.

Foodborne bacterial infections caused by pathogens are a widespread problem in the Middle East, leading to significant economic losses and negative impacts on public health. This review aims to offer insights into the recent literature regarding the occurrence of harmful E. coli bacteria in the food supply of Arab countries. Additionally, it aims to summarize existing information on health issues and the state of resistance to antibiotics. The reviewed evidence highlights a lack of a comprehensive understanding of the extent to which harmful E. coli genes are present in the food supply of Arab countries. Efforts to identify the source of harmful E. coli in the Arab world through molecular characterization are limited. The Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC) countries have conducted few surveys specifically targeting harmful E. coli in the food supply. Despite having qualitative data that indicate the presence or absence of harmful E. coli, there is a noticeable absence of quantitative data regarding the actual numbers of harmful E. coli in chicken meat supplies across all Arab countries. While reports about harmful E. coli in animal-derived foods are common, especially in North African Arab countries, the literature emphasized in this review underscores the ongoing challenge that harmful E. coli pose to food safety and public health in Arab countries.

Assessing the Prevalence and Potential Risks of Salmonella Infection Associated with Fresh Salad Vegetable Consumption in the United Arab Emirates.

This study aimed to investigate the occurrence and characteristics of Salmonella isolates in salad vegetables in the United Arab Emirates (UAE). Out of 400 samples tested from retail, only 1.25% (95% confidence interval, 0.41-2.89) were found to be positive for Salmonella, all of which were from conventional local produce, presented at ambient temperature, and featured as loose items. The five Salmonella-positive samples were arugula (n = 3), dill (n = 1), and spinach (n = 1). The Salmonella isolates from the five samples were found to be pan-susceptible to a panel of 12 antimicrobials tested using a disc diffusion assay. Based on whole-genome sequencing (WGS) analysis, only two antimicrobial resistance genes were detected-one conferring resistance to aminoglycosides (aac(6')-Iaa) and the other to fosfomycin (fosA7). WGS enabled the analysis of virulence determinants of the recovered Salmonella isolates from salad vegetables, revealing a range from 152 to 165 genes, collectively grouped under five categories, including secretion system, fimbrial adherence determinants, macrophage-inducible genes, magnesium uptake, and non-fimbrial adherence determinants. All isolates were found to possess genes associated with the type III secretion system (TTSS), encoded by Salmonella pathogenicity island-1 (SPI-1), but various genes associated with the second type III secretion system (TTSS-2), encoded by SPI-2, were absent in all isolates. Combining the mean prevalence of Salmonella with information regarding consumption in the UAE, an exposure of 0.0131 salmonellae consumed per person per day through transmission via salad vegetables was calculated. This exposure was used as an input in a beta-Poisson dose-response model, which estimated that there would be 10,584 cases of the Salmonella infection annually for the entire UAE population. In conclusion, salad vegetables sold in the UAE are generally safe for consumption regarding Salmonella occurrence, but occasional contamination is possible. The results of this study may be used for the future development of risk-based food safety surveillance systems in the UAE and to elaborate on the importance for producers, retailers, and consumers to follow good hygiene practices, particularly for raw food items such as leafy salad greens.

Contamination Levels and Phenotypic and Genomic Characterization of Antimicrobial Resistance in Escherichia coli Isolated from Fresh Salad Vegetables in the United Arab Emirates.

Contaminated fresh produce has been identified as a vehicle for human foodborne illness. The present study investigated the counts, antimicrobial resistance profile, and genome-based characterization of Escherichia coli in 11 different types of fresh salad vegetable products (n = 400) sampled from retailers in Abu Dhabi and Dubai in the United Arab Emirates. E. coli was detected in 30% of the tested fresh salad vegetable items, with 26.5% of the samples having an unsatisfactory level (≥100 CFU/g) of E. coli, notably arugula and spinach. The study also assessed the effect of the variability in sample conditions on E. coli counts and found, based on negative binominal regression analysis, that samples from local produce had a significantly higher (p-value < 0.001) E. coli count than imported samples. The analysis also indicated that fresh salad vegetables from the soil-less farming system (e.g., hydroponic and aeroponic) had significantly (p-value < 0.001) fewer E. coli than those from traditional produce farming. The study also examined the antimicrobial resistance in E. coli (n = 145) recovered from fresh salad vegetables and found that isolates exhibited the highest phenotypic resistance toward ampicillin (20.68%), tetracycline (20%), and trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole (10.35%). A total of 20 (13.79%) of the 145 E. coli isolates exhibited a multidrug-resistant phenotype, all from locally sourced leafy salad vegetables. The study further characterized 18 of the 20 multidrug-resistant E. coli isolates using whole-genome sequencing and found that the isolates had varying numbers of virulence-related genes, ranging from 8 to 25 per isolate. The frequently observed genes likely involved in extra-intestinal infection were CsgA, FimH, iss, and afaA. The ß-lactamases gene blaCTX-M-15 was prevalent in 50% (9/18) of the E. coli isolates identified from leafy salad vegetable samples. The study highlights the potential risk of foodborne illness and the likely spread of antimicrobial resistance and resistance genes associated with consuming leafy salad vegetables and emphasizes the importance of proper food safety practices, including proper storage and handling of fresh produce.

Domestic Pets in the United Arab Emirates as Reservoirs for Antibiotic-Resistant Bacteria: A Comprehensive Analysis of Extended-Spectrum Beta-Lactamase Producing Escherichia coli Prevalence and Risk Factors.

Extended-spectrum ß-lactamases resistant (ESBL-R) Escherichia coli (E. coli) has been reported from healthy and sick pets. However, data from Middle Eastern countries, including the United Arab Emirates (UAE), are minimal. This study provides the first evidence of ESBL-R E. coli carriage among pets in the UAE. A total of 148 rectal swabs were collected from domestic cats (n = 122) and dogs (n = 26) attending five animal clinics in the UAE. Samples were cultured directly onto selective agar, and suspected colonies were confirmed as ESBL-producing using phenotypic and molecular methods. Confirmed isolates were screened for their phenotypic resistance to twelve antimicrobial agents using the Kirby Bauer method. The owners of the pets completed a questionnaire at the time of sampling, and the data were used to identify risk factors. ESBL-R E. coli was detected in rectal swabs of 35 out of 148 animals (23.65%) (95% confidence interval [CI]: 17.06-31.32). Multivariable logistic regression analysis identified cats and dogs with access to water in ditches and puddles as 3.71 (p-value = 0.020) times more likely to be positive to ESBL-R E. coli than those without access to open water sources. Ciprofloxacin resistance was evident in 57.14% (44/77) of the ESBL-R E. coli isolates. The percentage of resistance to azithromycin and cefepime was 12.99% (10/77) and 48.05% (37/77), respectively. The blaCTX-M gene was detected in 82% of the PCR-screened isolates (n = 50). Multidrug resistance (MDR) phenotypes were evident in 91% (70/77) of the isolates. In conclusion, ESBL-R E. coli was detected at a noticeable rate among healthy pet cats and dogs in the UAE, and the majority are MDR to clinically important antimicrobials such as fluoroquinolones and 3rd and 4th generation cephalosporins. Our results call for strengthening antimicrobial stewardship among companion animal veterinarians in the UAE to reduce the potential transmission of ESBL-R E. coli between pets, humans, and urban environments.

Enumeration, antimicrobial resistance and genomic characterization of extended-spectrum ß-lactamases producing Escherichia coli from supermarket chicken meat in the United Arab Emirates.

The occurrence and counts of extended-spectrum ß-lactamase (ESBL)-producing Escherichia coli in retail chicken sold in the United Arab Emirates (UAE) were investigated in this study. Results indicated that 79.68 % of chicken carcasses (251/315) sampled from UAE supermarkets harbored ESBL-producing E. coli. About half (51.75 % [163/315]) of the tested samples had an ESBL-producing E. coli count range between ≥3 log10 and < 5 log10 CFU/g. The antimicrobial resistance profiles of a subset of 100 isolates showed high rates of non-susceptibility to clinically significant antibiotics, particularly ciprofloxacin (80 %) and cefepime (46 %). Moreover, 7 % of the isolates exhibited resistance to colistin, with PCR-based screening revealing the presence of the mcr-1 gene in all colistin-resistant isolates. Multiplex PCR screening identified blaCTX-M and blaTEM genes as the most frequently presented genes among the phenotypically confirmed ESBL-producing E. coli. Further whole-genome sequencing and bioinformatic analysis of 27 ESBL-producing E. coli isolates showed that the gene family blaCTX group 1 was the most prevalent, notably CTX-M-55 (55.55 % [15/27]), followed by CTX-M-15 (22.22 % [6/27]). The most common sequence types (STs) were ST359 and ST1011, with three evident clusters identified based on phylogenomic analysis, aligned with isolates from specific production companies. Analysis of plasmid incompatibility types revealed IncFIB, IncFII, Incl2, and IncX1 as the most commonly featured plasmids. The findings of this study indicate a noticeable prevalence and high counts of ESBL-producing E. coli in chicken sampled from supermarkets in the UAE. The high rates of antimicrobial resistance to clinically important antibiotics highlight the potential public health risk associated with consuming chicken contaminated with ESBL-producing E. coli. Overall, this study emphasizes the importance of continued antimicrobial resistance monitoring in the UAE food chain and calls for further exposure risk assessment of the consumption of ESBL-producing E. coli via chicken meat.

Multi-Drug Resistant Pathogenic Escherichia coli Isolated from Wild Birds, Chicken, and the Environment in Malaysia.

Transmission of pathogenic microorganisms in the last decades has been considered a significant health hazard and pathogenic E. coli, particularly antibiotic-resistant strains, have long been identified as a zoonotic problem. This study aimed to investigate multidrug resistant pathogenic E. coli isolates from wild birds, chickens, and environment in selected Orang Asli and Malay villages in Peninsular Malaysia. The bacteriological culture-based technique, disc diffusion method, and multiplex Polymerase Chain Reaction (mPCR) assay was used to determine the occurrence of pathogenic E. coli strains in the several samples in the study. E. coli isolates showed a variety of multi-drug resistant (MDR) antibiotypes and Enteropathogenic E. coli (EPEC) and Enteroinvasive E. coli (EIEC) were the most predominantly identified pathogenic E. coli strains. The findings of this study demonstrated the significance of animal reservoirs and the environment as sources of pathogenic E. coli, resistant bacteria, and resistance genes. Hence, there is a need for adoption of a practical surveillance approach on MDR pathogens to control foodborne contamination.

First report from supermarket chicken meat and genomic characterization of colistin resistance mediated by mcr-1.1 in ESBL-producing, multidrug-resistant Salmonella Minnesota.

Plasmid-borne colistin resistance is considered one of the most complex public health concerns worldwide. Several studies reported the presence of the mcr-1.1 harboring Salmonella from the foodstuffs worldwide; still, there is a knowledge gap about the occurrence of these isolates in the Middle East. In this study, we report an mcr-1.1-mediated colistin resistance in two multidrug-resistant (MDR) S. Minnesota (denoted as Sal_2 and Sal_10), with both being also extended-spectrum ß-lactamase (ESBL) producing. These isolates have been recovered from two independent samples out of 315 chilled chicken meat tested from retail supermarkets in the United Arab Emirates (UAE). Based on whole-genome sequencing (WGS) analysis, both isolates belonged to the same Sequence Type (ST) ST548. They shared the same genes encoding resistance to the following antimicrobials: polymyxin (mcr-1.1), phenicol (floR), quinolone (qnrB19), aminoglycoside (aac(6')-Iaa), tetracycline (tet(A)), and sulfonamide (sul2). However, the isolates featured different patterns of ß-lactamase resistance genes, which included blaCTX-M-55 (ESBL-ß-lactamase) and blaCMY-2 (AmpC-ß-lactamase) in the isolate Sal_2, and blaTEM-215 (ESBL-ß-lactamase) in the isolate Sal_10. WGS analysis inferred that both S. Minnesota isolates in this study carry an IncX4 plasmid harboring the mcr-1.1 variant. To understand the possible origin of the two mcr-1.1 carrying S. Minnesota isolated from retail chicken meat in this study, we conducted a phylogenomic analysis using available genomes of S. enterica, which harbored mcr-1.1 gene (n = 240, from the Middle East and Asian countries) deposited in the NCBI database. We found that Sal_2 and Sal_10 independently clustered together with other isolates detected in China, mainly from the chicken origin and to a lesser extent from human clinical origin. The finding of mcr-producing colistin-resistant strains in retail chicken meat warrants a more comprehensive One Health investigations involving strains from animals, retail food chains, and human clinical isolates at the national level in the UAE.

Enumeration, Antimicrobial Resistance, and Virulence Genes Screening of Enterococcus spp. Isolated from Retail Chicken Carcasses in the United Arab Emirates.

Enterococci have recently emerged as nosocomial pathogens worldwide. Their ubiquitous nature determines their frequent finding in foods as contaminants. In this study, we aimed to determine the counts, species diversity, antimicrobial resistance profile, and to screen for a set of virulence genes among enterococci. Enterococcus were identified from 75.7% (125/165) of chilled chicken carcasses, belonging to seven companies, sampled from retail markets in Abu Dhabi Emirate, United Arab Emirates (U.A.E.). Overall, the samples, with a mean Enterococcus count of 2.58 log10 colony-forming unit (CFU)/g with a standard deviation of ±1.17 log10 CFU/g. Among the characterized Enterococcus isolates (n = 90), Enterococcus faecalis was the predominant species (51.1%), followed by Enterococcus faecium (37.8%). Using Vitek2 automated antimicrobial sensitivity panel, we found none of the E. faecalis nor E. faecium to be resistant to ampicillin, teicoplanin, vancomycin, or tigecycline. A third of the E. faecalis (28.3%) and E. faecium (35.3%) were resistant to high-level gentamicin. Over half of E. faecalis (54.3%) were resistant to ciprofloxacin, and the same was in about a third of E. faecium isolates (29.4%). Linezolid resistance was identified in 10 E. faecalis and 7 E. faecium isolates belonging to samples from three companies. All of the linezolid-resistant isolates harbored oxazolidinone resistance optrA gene. Virulence-associated genes (asa1 and gelE) were significantly (p < 0.05) more detected among E. faecalis compared to E. faecium isolates recovered in this study. Over half of the E. faecalis (25/46) and E. faecium (20/34) isolates were identified as multidrug-resistant. This study provides further insight into virulence genes and their association with the dissemination of multidrug-resistant E. faecalis and E. faecium in supermarket chicken meat in the U.A.E. This is probably the first description of the optrA gene in enterococci from supermarket chicken meat in the U.A.E. and from Arab countries. This study adds to the regional and global understanding of antimicrobial resistance spread in foods of animal origin.

Emergence and Genomic Characterization of the First Reported optrA-Carrying Linezolid-Resistant Enterococci Isolated from Retail Broiler Meat in the United Arab Emirates.

The foodborne transfer of resistant genes from enterococci to humans and their tolerance to several commonly used antimicrobials are of growing concern worldwide. Linezolid is a last-line drug for managing complicated illnesses resulting from multidrug-resistant Gram-positive bacteria. The optrA gene has been reported in enterococci as one of the acquired linezolid resistance mechanisms. The present study uses whole-genome sequencing analysis to characterize the first reported isolates of linezolid-resistant E. faecium (n = 6) and E. faecalis (n = 10) harboring the optrA gene isolated from samples of supermarket broiler meat (n = 165) in the United Arab Emirates (UAE). The sequenced genomes were used to appraise the study isolates' genetic relatedness, antimicrobial resistance determinants, and virulence traits. All 16 isolates carrying the optrA gene demonstrated multidrug-resistance profiles. Genome-based relatedness classified the isolates into five clusters that were independent of the isolate sources. The most frequently known genotype among the isolates was the sequence type ST476 among E. faecalis (50% (5/10)). The study isolates revealed five novel sequence types. Antimicrobial resistance genes (ranging from 5 to 13) were found among all isolates that conferred resistance against 6 to 11 different classes of antimicrobials. Sixteen different virulence genes were found distributed across the optrA-carrying E. faecalis isolates. The virulence genes in E. faecalis included genes encoding invasion, cell adhesion, sex pheromones, aggregation, toxins production, the formation of biofilms, immunity, antiphagocytic activity, proteases, and the production of cytolysin. This study presented the first description and in-depth genomic characterization of the optrA-gene-carrying linezolid-resistant enterococci from retail broiler meat in the UAE and the Middle East. Our results call for further monitoring of the emergence of linezolid resistance at the retail and farm levels. These findings elaborate on the importance of adopting a One Health surveillance approach involving enterococci as a prospective bacterial indicator for antimicrobial resistance spread at the human-food interface.

Current State of Salmonella, Campylobacter and Listeria in the Food Chain across the Arab Countries: A Descriptive Review.

Foodborne infections caused by bacterial pathogens are a common cause of human illness in the Middle East, with a substantial burden of economic loss and public health consequences. This review aims at elucidating recent literature on the prevalence of Non-Typhoidal Salmonella (NTS), Campylobacter and Listeria monocytogens in the food chain in the Arab countries, and to consolidate available evidence on the public health burden and the status of antimicrobial resistance (AMR) among the concerned three pathogens. The reviewed evidence points to a scarcity of understanding of the magnitude of NTS in the food chain in the Arab countries. Additionally, not much work has been done at the molecular characterization level to address the source-attribution of NTS in the Arab World. Very few surveys have been done on Campylobacter in the food chain in the Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC) countries. There is a gap in quantitative (counts/numbers) surveillance efforts for Campylobacter in the chicken meat supply across all Arab countries, despite the availability of some qualitative (presence/absence) surveillance data. While there are several reports on L. monocytogenes in animal-sourced foods, notably in North African Arab countries, fewer are published on L. monocytogenes in plant-sourced foods. Information on the L. monocytogenes serotypes and strain diversity circulating in the Arab region is widely lacking. Antibiotic resistance in the three pathogens is not fully understood across the Arab region, despite some reports indicating varying trends at the human-food interface. The literature evidence presented in this review stresses that Salmonella, Campylobacter and L. monocytogenes continue to challenge food safety and public health in the Arab countries.