Analytical quality by design-compliant retention modeling for exploring column interchangeabilities in separating ezetimibe and its related substances.

There are several potential advantages of using experimental design-based retention modeling for chromatographic method development. Most importantly, through the model-delivered systematic understanding (Design Spaces), users can benefit from increased method consistency, flexibility and robustness that can efficiently be achieved at lesser amount of development time. As a result, modeling tools have always been great supplementary assets and welcomed by both the pharmaceutical industry and the regulatory authorities. Most recently published chapters of ICH however - Q2(R2) and Q14 (both currently drafts) - evidence a further paradigm shift, specifying the elements of model-based development strategies in the so-called "enhanced approach". The main aim of this study was to investigate the impact of stationary phase chemistries on chromatographic method performance in the application example of ezetimibe and its related substances. A commercial modeling software package (DryLab®) was used to outline three-dimensional experimental design frameworks and acquire model Design Spaces (DSs) of 9 tested columns. This was done by performing 12 input calibration experiments per column, systematically changing critical method parameters (CMPs) as variables such as the gradient time (tG), temperature (T) and the ternary composition (tC) of the mobile phase. The constructed models allowed studying retention behaviors of selected analytes within each separation systems. In the first part of our work, we performed single optimizations for all nine stationary phases with substantially different surface modifications based on their highest achievable critical resolution values. For these optimum points in silico robustness testing was performed, clearly showing a change of CMPs, depending on the column, and specified optimum setpoint. In the second part of our work, we simultaneously compared the three-dimensional virtual separation models to identify all method parameter combinations that could provide at least baseline separation (Rs, crit.>1.50). These overlapping areas between the models described a common method operational design region (MODR) where columns were considered completely interchangeable - in terms of their baseline resolving capability - regardless of their exact physicochemical properties. A final optimized, column-independent working point within the common MODR was selected for verification. Indeed, experimental chromatograms showed excellent agreement with the model; all columns in the common condition were able to yield critical resolution values higher than 2.0, only their retentivity (elution window of peaks) was found different in some cases. Our results underline that a profound understanding of the separation process is of utmost importance andthat in some cases, adequate selectivity is achievable on various stationary phases.

Simultaneous optimization of mobile phase composition and pH using retention modeling and experimental design.

Chromatographic methods are progressing continuously. Increasing sample complexity and safety expectations lead to higher regulatory demands, hence challenges in liquid chromatography analysis are rising, even today, when faster and faster chromatographic systems are extensively employed and become widely accessible for successful method development. The goal of this study was to investigate the impact of mobile phase influences as important factors of selectivity tuning in method development. This would mitigate mobile phase-related robustness issues throughout the method's lifecycle. To discover and understand these effects, a new module of chromatographic modeling software DryLab (ver. 4.3.4. beta) was introduced and a special experimental design (DoE) was tested, allowing the simultaneous optimization of solvent-dependent parameters, such as gradient time (tG), ternary eluent composition (tC) and pH, requiring 18 input experiments (2 × 3 × 3 = 18). Additionally, the model creation, using a UPLC system and a narrow bore column (50 × 2.1 mm), the entire experimental work could be finished in 2-3 hours. To demonstrate the applicability of this new design, amlodipine and its related pharmacopoeia impurities (A-H) were subjected to be used in a case study. Predicted vs. Experimental (or Verification) runs showed excellent agreement, average retention time deviations were typically less than 1 s. Modelled robustness testing was also performed, elucidating all important mobile phase and instrument parameters that could influence a method's lifetime performance. Furthermore, as the in silico robustness testing is the least time consuming part of the method development process, it can be used extensively to evaluate robustness even at the very early part in stage 1 of the Method Life Cycle (MLC).

Implementation of a generic liquid chromatographic method development workflow: Application to the analysis of phytocannabinoids and Cannabis sativa extracts.

A generic liquid chromatographic method development workflow was developed and successfully applied to the analysis of phytocannabinoids and Cannabis sativa extracts. Our method development procedure consists in four steps: At the end, this method development workflow was performed in less than 4 days and minimizes the costs of the method development in liquid chromatography.

Separation of antibody drug conjugate species by RPLC: A generic method development approach.

This study reports the use of modelling software for the successful method development of IgG1 cysteine conjugated antibody drug conjugate (ADC) in RPLC. The goal of such a method is to be able to calculate the average drug to antibody ratio (DAR) of and ADC product. A generic method development strategy was proposed including the optimization of mobile phase temperature, gradient profile and mobile phase ternary composition. For the first time, a 3D retention modelling was presented for large therapeutic protein. Based on a limited number of preliminary experiments, a fast and efficient separation of the DAR species of a commercial ADC sample, namely brentuximab vedotin, was achieved. The prediction offered by the retention model was found to be highly reliable, with an average error of retention time prediction always lower than 0.5% using a 2D or 3D retention models. For routine purpose, four to six initial experiments were required to build the 2D retention models, while 12 experiments were recommended to create the 3D model. At the end, RPLC can therefore be considered as a good method for estimating the average DAR of an ADC, based on the observed peak area ratios of RPLC chromatogram of the reduced ADC sample.

Renewal of an old European Pharmacopoeia method for Terazosin using modeling with mass spectrometric peak tracking.

An older method for terazosin was reworked in order to reduce the analysis time from 90min (2×45min) to below 5min. The method in European Pharmacopoeia (Ph.Eur.) investigates the specified impurities separately. The reason of the different methods is that the retention of two impurities is not adequate in reversed phase, not even with 100% water. Therefore ion-pair-chromatography has to be applied and since that two impurities absorb at low UV-wavelength they had to be analyzed by different method than the other specified impurities. In our new method we could improve the retention with pH elevation using a new type of stationary phases available for high pH applications. Also a detection wavelength could be selected that is appropriate for the detection and quantification of all impurities. The method development is the bottleneck of liquid chromatography even today, when more and more fast chromatographic systems are used. Expert knowledge with intelligent programs is available to reduce the time of method development and offer extra information about the robustness of the separation. Design of Experiments (DoE) for simultaneous optimization of gradient time (tG), temperature (T) and ternary eluent composition (tC) requires 12 experiments. A good alternative way to identify a certain peak in different chromatograms is the molecular mass of the compound, due to its high specificity. Liquid Chromatography-Mass Spectrometry (LC-MS) is now a routine technique and increasingly available in laboratories. In our experiment for the resolution- and retention modeling the DryLab4 method development software (Version 4.2) was used. In recent versions of the software the use of (m/z)-MS-data is possible along the UV-peak-area-tracking technology. The modelled and measured chromatograms showed excellent correlations. The average retention time deviations were ca. 0.5s and there was no difference between the predicted and measured Rs,crit -values.

Establishing column batch repeatability according to Quality by Design (QbD) principles using modeling software.

Column technology needs further improvement even today. To get information of batch-to-batch repeatability, intelligent modeling software was applied. Twelve columns from the same production process, but from different batches were compared in this work. In this paper, the retention parameters of these columns with real life sample solutes were studied. The following parameters were selected for measurements: gradient time, temperature and pH. Based on calculated results, batch-to-batch repeatability of BEH columns was evaluated. Two parallel measurements on two columns from the same batch were performed to obtain information about the quality of packing. Calculating the average of individual working points at the highest critical resolution (R(s,crit)) it was found that the robustness, calculated with a newly released robustness module, had a success rate >98% among the predicted 3(6) = 729 experiments for all 12 columns. With the help of retention modeling all substances could be separated independently from the batch and/or packing, using the same conditions, having high robustness of the experiments.

DAAM is required for thin filament formation and Sarcomerogenesis during muscle development in Drosophila.

During muscle development, myosin and actin containing filaments assemble into the highly organized sarcomeric structure critical for muscle function. Although sarcomerogenesis clearly involves the de novo formation of actin filaments, this process remained poorly understood. Here we show that mouse and Drosophila members of the DAAM formin family are sarcomere-associated actin assembly factors enriched at the Z-disc and M-band. Analysis of dDAAM mutants revealed a pivotal role in myofibrillogenesis of larval somatic muscles, indirect flight muscles and the heart. We found that loss of dDAAM function results in multiple defects in sarcomere development including thin and thick filament disorganization, Z-disc and M-band formation, and a near complete absence of the myofibrillar lattice. Collectively, our data suggest that dDAAM is required for the initial assembly of thin filaments, and subsequently it promotes filament elongation by assembling short actin polymers that anneal to the pointed end of the growing filaments, and by antagonizing the capping protein Tropomodulin.

In silico robustness testing of a compendial HPLC purity method by using of a multidimensional design space build by chromatography modeling-Case study pramipexole.

Purity testing of the active pharmaceutical ingredient (API) pramipexole is performed using an official (compendial) and harmonized method published in the European Pharmacopeia (E.P.) and United States Pharmacopeia (USP). According to this monograph the successful chromatographic separation of the API from impurities is achieved on a C18 column with gradient elution of an ion pairing buffer of pH 3.0 (mobile phase A) and acetonitrile (mobile phase B). Although not recommended in general, compendial methods are often adapted for purity testing of generic formulations. In this paper a novel approach to evaluate method robustness of an adapted method - prior of full method validation - is described. Based on Quality-by-Design (QbD) principles, a small number of experiments are performed, which after entering them into a chromatography modeling software allow to visualize a multidimensional "Design Space", a region, in which changes in method parameters will not significantly affect the results as defined in the ICH guideline Q8(R2) leading to a more flexible method handling in routine analysis. For two different recommended C18 columns a multidimensional Design Space (Method Operating Design Region, MODR) was constructed to study the robustness of the adapted method with a newly developed Robustness Module. In a full factorial design the following six parameters were varied at three levels (low, nominal, high): gradient time, temperature, pH of the aqueous eluent (A), flow rate, start- and end concentration of the organic mobile phase component (eluent B). The resulting 3(6)=729 experiments were performed in silico from the previously constructed models for Design Space in less than 1min and showed that the required resolution of 2.0 could not be reached in all experiments for the two columns which were recommended by the E.P. (failure rate 25% and 16%, respectively). However, by adjusting the gradient time, we were able to fulfill the requirements with a failure rate of zero. For the aqueous eluent a separate "Eluent Design Space" study was performed, which allows the construction of ionic strength vs. ion pairing concentration models to identify the optimum combination of the concentrations for the buffer and the ion-pairing reagent.

Intergroup cross-comparison for the evaluation of data-interchangeability from various chromatographic tests.

The recently dramatic increase in the available choices of reversed-phase columns could be an advantage of this mode of separation. However, due to the insufficiency of available information in terms of the exact functionality of these phases and the similarities and differences between these newly introduced and conventional reversed-phase columns, it is now somehow problematic to determine which could be the best column for a given analytical problem. There is no single column that will give us a good separation for all applications. As a result, there have been several attempts to develop testing strategies to characterize column chemistries. In this study three of the most widely used and acceptable approaches for the characterization of reversed-phase columns, which are Tanaka, United States Pharmacopeia (USP), and Snyder-Dolan, are systemically applied to investigate the chromatographic properties of calixarene- and resorcinarene-bonded stationary phases, polar-embedded and polar-endcapped stationary phases, phenyl and ether-linked phenyl with the presence of conventional alkyl-bonded phases (octyl- and octadecylsilane). Although all column classification systems aim to evaluate "more or less" the same characteristics, each system uses different test mixtures in different chromatographic conditions. It is therefore very important to evaluate the similarities and differences in the resulted "column parameters" and the possible interchangeability of them. The results of this comparative study show that the used parameters of Tanaka and of Snyder-Dolan have in many cases a good to very good correlation. The USP approach, which is based on single run, is related to Tanaka and Snyder-Dolan only in terms of hydrophobic characters, and no relation could establish in the other parameters. The hydrophobic-subtraction model could be extended to describe the ligand-solute interactions of calixarene- and resorcinarene-bonded stationary phases, which are belonging to reversed phase material. However they show, depending on the analytes, some additional interactions, since their steric, polar and ionic properties are different compared to those of conventional alkyl-bonded phases.

Exploring better column selectivity choices in ultra-high performance liquid chromatography using quality by design principles.

An older method for amlodipine was reworked with the goal to reduce the analysis time of 60min below 6min. To select the best column for short and robust analysis, 9 different UHPLC column chemistries were investigated using 3-dimensional resolution spaces based on 12 experiments using modelling software. The main variables used were gradient time (tG), temperature (T) and the pH of eluent A. The best critical resolution was calculated and located in a 3-dimensional space in an automated fashion and the corresponding best experiments were carried out. The work (9×12=108 runs) was finished with an UHPLC instrument in less than 24h. The comparison between predictions and real experiments showed an excellent correlation with differences typically less than 0.04min (<3s) in average, although the set points were located at quite different conditions on gradient times, pH's and temperatures for the individual columns. All columns could perform the required baseline separation at their individual best working points with satisfactory results.

Using an innovative Quality-by-Design approach for development of a stability indicating UHPLC method for ebastine in the API and pharmaceutical formulations.

A stability-indicating ultra high performance liquid chromatographic (UHPLC) method has been developed for purity testing of ebastine and its pharmaceutical formulations. Successful chromatographic separation of the API from impurities was achieved on a Waters Acquity UPLC BEH C18, 50 mm × 2.1 mm, 1.7 µm particle size column with gradient elution of 10 mM acetate buffer pH 6.2 and a mixture of acetonitrile/2-propanol (1:1) as the mobile phase. Incorporating Quality by Design (QbD) principles to the method development approach by using the chromatography modeling software DryLab4 allows the visualization of a "Design Space", a region in which changes to method parameters will not significantly affect the results as defined in the ICH guideline Q8 (R2). A verification study demonstrated that the established model for Design Space is accurate with a relative error of prediction of only 0.6%. The method was fully validated for specificity, linearity, accuracy and precision, and robustness in compliance to the ICH guideline Q2 (R1). The method was found to be linear in the concentration range from the quantification limit (LOQ) to 125% of the specification limit for ebastine and each of the impurities with correlation coefficients of not less than 0.999. The recovery rate was between 98.15 and 100.30% for each impurity. The repeatability and intermediate precision (RSD) were less than 3.2% for ebastine and each of the impurities. The robustness of the developed method was studied by varying the six parameters: gradient time, temperature, ternary composition of the eluent, flow rate and start and end concentration of the gradient at 3 levels (+1, 0, -1). The resulting 729 experiments were performed in silico from the previously constructed model for Design Space and showed that the required resolution of 2.0 can be reached in all experiments. To prove the stability-indicating performance of the method, forced degradation (acid and base hydrolysis, oxidation, photolytic and thermal stress conditions) of ebastine was carried out. Baseline separation could be achieved for all peaks of the impurities, the degradation products and the API. Total run time was only 4 min, which is an impressive 40-fold increase in productivity in comparison to the method published in the Ph. Eur. monograph and allowed purity testing of more than 360 samples per day.

Drosophila Src regulates anisotropic apical surface growth to control epithelial tube size.

Networks of epithelial and endothelial tubes are essential for the function of organs such as the lung, kidney and vascular system. The sizes and shapes of these tubes are highly regulated to match their individual functions. Defects in tube size can cause debilitating diseases such as polycystic kidney disease and ischaemia. It is therefore critical to understand how tube dimensions are regulated. Here we identify the tyrosine kinase Src as an instructive regulator of epithelial-tube length in the Drosophila tracheal system. Loss-of-function Src42 mutations shorten tracheal tubes, whereas Src42 overexpression elongates them. Surprisingly, Src42 acts distinctly from known tube-size pathways and regulates both the amount of apical surface growth and, with the conserved formin dDaam, the direction of growth. Quantitative three-dimensional image analysis reveals that Src42- and dDaam-mutant tracheal cells expand more in the circumferential than the axial dimension, resulting in tubes that are shorter in length-but larger in diameter-than wild-type tubes. Thus, Src42 and dDaam control tube dimensions by regulating the direction of anisotropic growth, a mechanism that has not previously been described.

DAAM family members leading a novel path into formin research.

Formins are an important and evolutionarily well conserved class of actin binding proteins with essential biological functions. Although their molecular roles in actin regulation have been clearly demonstrated in vitro, their functions at the cellular or organism levels are still poorly understood. To illustrate this problem, but also to demonstrate potential ways forward, we focus here on the DAAM group of formins. In vertebrates, DAAM group members have been demonstrated to be important regulators of cellular and tissue morphogenesis but, as for all formins, the molecular mechanisms underlying these morphogenetic functions remain to be uncovered. The genome of the fruitfly Drosophila encodes a single DAAM gene that is evolutionarily highly conserved. Recent work on dDAAM has already provided a unique combination of observations and experimental opportunities unrivalled by any other Drosophila formin. These comprise in vitro actin polymerisation assays, subcellular studies in culture and in vivo, and a range of developmental phenotypes revealing a role in tracheal morphogenesis, axonal growth and muscle organization. At all these levels, future work on dDAAM will capitalize on the power of fly genetics, raising unique opportunities to advance our understanding of dDAAM at the systems level, with obvious implications for other formins.

Rapid high performance liquid chromatography method development with high prediction accuracy, using 5cm long narrow bore columns packed with sub-2microm particles and Design Space computer modeling.

Many different strategies of reversed phase high performance liquid chromatographic (RP-HPLC) method development are used today. This paper describes a strategy for the systematic development of ultrahigh-pressure liquid chromatographic (UHPLC or UPLC) methods using 5cmx2.1mm columns packed with sub-2microm particles and computer simulation (DryLab((R)) package). Data for the accuracy of computer modeling in the Design Space under ultrahigh-pressure conditions are reported. An acceptable accuracy for these predictions of the computer models is presented. This work illustrates a method development strategy, focusing on time reduction up to a factor 3-5, compared to the conventional HPLC method development and exhibits parts of the Design Space elaboration as requested by the FDA and ICH Q8R1. Furthermore this paper demonstrates the accuracy of retention time prediction at elevated pressure (enhanced flow-rate) and shows that the computer-assisted simulation can be applied with sufficient precision for UHPLC applications (p>400bar). Examples of fast and effective method development in pharmaceutical analysis, both for gradient and isocratic separations are presented.

Retention modelling in ternary solvent-strength gradient elution reversed-phase chromatography using 30 mm columns.

An optimization strategy for ternary solvent-strength gradient elution RP chromatography is described in which a two-dimensional model of gradient time (2 levels) against ternary proportions of organic modifiers (4 levels) was constructed. From the resolution surface the optimum ratio of organic modifiers could be selected. Excellent retention time and acceptable peak width and resolution simulations were obtained. The separation could be further optimized from the same input data by using a standard one-dimensional model in order to optimize for gradient slope, duration and shape. Excellent retention time and acceptable peak width and resolution simulations were obtained (< 1, 2 and 6% error, respectively).

Computerized design of separation strategies by reversed-phase liquid chromatography: development of DryLab software.

The development of DryLab software is a special achievement in analytical HPLC which took place in the last 16 years. This paper tries to collect some of the historical mile stones and concepts. DryLab, being always subject to change according to the needs of the user, never stopped being developed. Under the influence of an ever changing science market, the DryLab development team had to consider not just scientific improvements, but also new technological achievements, such as the introduction of Windows 1.0 and 3.1, and later Windows NT and 2000. The recent availability of new 32-bit programming tools allowed calculations of chromatograms to be completed more quickly so as to show peak movements which result for example from slight changes in eluent pH. DryLab is a great success of interdisciplinary and intercontinental cooperation by many scientists.

Computer-assisted optimization in the development of a high-performance liquid chromatographic method for the analysis of kava pyrones in Piper methysticum preparations.

A computer simulation program was used to optimize the separation for six kava pyrones and two unidentified components obtaining the best resolution and the shortest run time. With DryLab it was possible to find the best separation conditions without running a large number of possible combination of variables in the laboratory. Additionally, due to the systematic progress in method development a new eluent was found with excellent properties, namely 2-propanol. With 2-propanol, the largest number of components could be revealed in the shortest analysis time. Starting with four initial experiments, the software allowed to optimize gradient time tG and temperature T simultaneously. Changing other variables such as type of organic modifier, the eluent pH, the gradient form, and the flow-rate, the optimization resulted in resolution Rs > 1.5 for all kava pyrones and the two additional new bands. The HPLC method is used to analyze kava pyrones in Piper methysticum preparations.