QuickDASH and PRWE Are Not Optimal Patient-Reported Outcome Measures After Distal Radial Fracture Due to Ceiling Effect: Potential Implications for Future Research.

BACKGROUND: The aim of this study was to determine the floor and ceiling effects for both the QuickDASH (shortened version of the Disabilities of the Arm, Shoulder and Hand [DASH] questionnaire) and the PRWE (Patient-Rated Wrist Evaluation) following a distal radial fracture (DRF). Secondary aims were to determine the degree to which patients with a floor or ceiling effect felt that their wrist was "normal" according to the Normal Wrist Score (NWS) and if there were patient factors associated with achieving a floor or ceiling effect. METHODS: A retrospective cohort study of patients in whom a DRF was managed at the study center during a single year was undertaken. Outcome measures included the QuickDASH, PRWE, EuroQol-5 Dimensions-3 Levels (EQ-5D-3L), and NWS. RESULTS: There were 526 patients with a mean age of 65 years (range, 20 to 95 years), and 421 (80%) were female. Most patients were managed nonsurgically (73%, n = 385). The mean follow-up was 4.8 years (range, 4.3 to 5.5 years). A ceiling effect was observed for both the QuickDASH (22.3% of patients with the best possible score) and the PRWE (28.5%). When defined as a score that differed from the best available score by less than the minimum clinically important difference (MCID) for the scoring system, the ceiling effect increased to 62.8% for the QuickDASH and 60% for the PRWE. Patients who had a ceiling score on the QuickDASH and the PWRE had a median NWS of 96 and 98, respectively, and those who had a score within 1 MCID of the ceiling score reported a median NWS of 91 and 92, respectively. On logistic regression analysis, a dominant-hand injury and better health-related quality of life were the factors associated with both QuickDASH and PRWE ceiling scores (all p < 0.05). CONCLUSIONS: The QuickDASH and PRWE demonstrate ceiling effects when used to assess the outcome of DRF management. Some patients achieving ceiling scores did not consider their wrist to be "normal." Future research on patient-reported outcome assessment tools for DRFs should aim to limit the ceiling effect, especially for individuals or groups that are more likely to achieve a ceiling score. LEVEL OF EVIDENCE: Prognostic Level III . See Instructions for Authors for a complete description of levels of evidence.

The Radiographic Union Score for ulnar fractures (RUSU) predicts ulnar shaft nonunion.

AIMS: To develop a reliable and effective radiological score to assess the healing of isolated ulnar shaft fractures (IUSF), the Radiographic Union Score for Ulna fractures (RUSU). METHODS: Initially, 20 patients with radiographs six weeks following a non-operatively managed ulnar shaft fracture were selected and scored by three blinded observers. After intraclass correlation (ICC) analysis, a second group of 54 patients with radiographs six weeks after injury (18 who developed a nonunion and 36 who united) were scored by the same observers. RESULTS: In the initial study, interobserver and intraobserver ICC were 0.89 and 0.93, respectively. In the validation study, the interobserver ICC was 0.85. The median score for patients who united was significantly higher than those who developed a nonunion (11 vs. 7, p < 0.001). A ROC curve demonstrated that a RUSU ≤ 8 had a sensitivity of 88.9% and specificity of 86.1% in identifying patients at risk of nonunion. Patients with a RUSU ≤ 8 (n = 21) were more likely to develop a nonunion (n = 16/21) than those with a RUSU ≥ 9 (n = 2/33; OR 49.6, 95% CI 8.6-284.7). Based on a PPV of 76%, if all patients with a RUSU ≤ 8 underwent fixation at 6 weeks, the number of procedures needed to avoid one nonunion would be 1.3. CONCLUSION: The RUSU shows good interobserver and intraobserver reliability and is effective in identifying patients at risk of nonunion six weeks after fracture. This tool requires external validation but may enhance the management of patients with isolated ulnar shaft fractures.

Distal radius malunion: outcomes following an ulnar shortening osteotomy.

PURPOSE: Positive ulnar variance following a distal radius malunion can lead to ulnar-sided wrist pain, loss of grip strength, and distal radioulnar joint impingement. The primary aim of this study is to describe upper limb-specific functional outcomes following ulnar shortening osteotomy (USO) for ulnar-sided wrist pain associated with malunion of the distal radius. METHODS: We retrospectively identified 40 adult patients from a single centre over a 9-year period that had undergone an USO for symptomatic malunion of the distal radius. The primary outcome was the patient-rated wrist evaluation (PRWE). Secondary outcomes were the QuickDASH, EQ-5D-5L, complications, and net promoter score (NPS). RESULTS: Outcomes were available for 37 patients (93%). The mean age was 56 years and 25 patients were female (68%). At a mean follow-up of 6 years (range 1-10 years) the median PRWE was 11 (IQR 0-29.5), the median QuickDASH 6.8 (IQR 0-29.5), and the median EQ-5D-5L index was 0.88 (IQR 0.71-1). The NPS was 73. Complications occurred in nine patients (24%) and included non-union (n = 4), early loss of fixation requiring revision surgery (n = 1), superficial wound infection (n = 2), neurological injury (n = 1), and further surgery for symptomatic hardware removal (n = 1). CONCLUSIONS: For patients with a symptomatic distal radius malunion where the predominant deformity is ulnar positive variance, this study has demonstrated that despite 1 in 4 patients experiencing a complication, USO can result in excellent patient reported outcomes with high levels of satisfaction. LEVEL OF EVIDENCE: III (Cohort Study).

Surgical Versus Nonsurgical Management of Humeral Shaft Fractures: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of Randomized Trials.

INTRODUCTION: The aim was to compare surgical and nonsurgical management for adults with humeral shaft fractures in terms of patient-reported upper limb function, health-related quality of life, radiographic outcomes, and complications. METHODS: MEDLINE, Embase, Cumulative Index to Nursing and Allied Health Literature, PubMed, Cochrane Central Register of Controlled Trials, ClinicalTrials.gov, International Clinical Trials Registry, and OpenGrey (Repository for Grey Literature in Europe) were searched in September 2021. All published prospective randomized trials comparing surgical and nonsurgical management of humeral shaft fractures in adults were included. Of 715 studies identified, five were included in the systematic review and four in the meta-analysis. Data were extracted by two independent reviewers according to the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis statement. Methodological quality was assessed using the revised Cochrane risk-of-bias tool for randomized trials. Pooled data were analyzed using a random-effects model. RESULTS: The meta-analysis comprised 292 patients (mean age 41 [18 to 83] years, 67% male). Surgery was associated with superior Disabilities of the Arm, Shoulder and Hand (DASH) and Constant-Murley scores at 6 months (mean DASH difference 7.6, P = 0.01; mean Constant-Murley difference 8.0, P = 0.003), but there was no difference at 1 year (DASH, P = 0.30; Constant-Murley, P = 0.33). No differences in health-related quality of life or pain scores were found. Surgery was associated with a lower risk of nonunion (0.7% versus 15.7%; odds ratio [OR] 0.13, P = 0.004). The number needed to treat with surgery to avoid one nonunion was 7. Surgery was associated with a higher risk of transient radial nerve palsy (17.4% versus 0.7%; OR 8.23, P = 0.01) but not infection (OR 3.57, P = 0.13). Surgery was also associated with a lower risk of reintervention (1.4% versus 19.3%; OR 0.14, P = 0.04). CONCLUSIONS: Surgery may confer an early functional advantage to adults with humeral shaft fractures, but this is not sustained beyond 6 months. The lower risk of nonunion should be balanced against the higher risk of transient radial nerve palsy. LEVEL OF EVIDENCE: Level I.

Outcome Following Acute Suture Anchor Repair of the Ulnar Collateral Ligament of the Thumb.

Background: The aim of this study was to evaluate the outcomes following acute repair of the ulnar collateral ligament of the thumb metacarpophalangeal joint (thumb UCL) using a suture anchor technique. Methods: From 2011 to 2019, we retrospectively identified 40 adult patients from a single centre who had undergone an acute thumb UCL repair (≤6 weeks post-injury). The mean age of the study cohort was 37 years (range 16-70) and 68% (n = 27/40) were male. The short-term outcomes included postoperative complications and failure of repair. The long-term outcomes were QuickDASH, the EuroQol 5-Dimension (EQ-5D), Visual Analogue Scale (EQ-VAS), return to sport and work and satisfaction with outcome. Results: The outcomes survey was completed at a mean of 4.3 years (range 1.0-9.2) for 33 patients (83%). Postoperative complications included self-limiting sensory disturbance (7.5%, n = 3/40), superficial infection (requiring oral antibiotics; 5%, n = 2/40) and wound dehiscence (requiring surgical debridement and re-closure; 2.5%, n = 1/40). No failures of repair were reported. The mean QuickDASH was 3.7 (range 0-27.3), EQ-5D 0.821 (range -0.041 to 1) and EQ-VAS 84 (range 60-100). Of the 32 employed patients, all returned to work at a median of 0.5 weeks (range 0-416) and the mean QuickDASH Work Module was 4.1 (range 0-50). Of the 24 patients playing sport prior to injury, 96% (n = 23/24) returned at a median of 16 weeks (range 5-52) and the mean QuickDASH Sport Module was 4.6 (range 0-25). All the patients were satisfied with their outcome (mean satisfaction score 9.8/10 [8-10O]). Conclusions: Thumb UCL repair using a suture anchor technique is safe and effective up to 6 weeks post injury. Pain and stiffness may persist in the longer term, but most patients report excellent upper limb function and health-related quality of life. The majority return to work and sport and are highly satisfied with their outcome. Level of Evidence: Level IV (Therapeutic).

Routine fixation of humeral shaft fractures is cost-effective : cost-utility analysis of 215 patients at a mean of five years following nonoperative management.

AIMS: The primary aim was to estimate the cost-effectiveness of routine operative fixation for all patients with humeral shaft fractures. The secondary aim was to estimate the health economic implications of using a Radiographic Union Score for HUmeral fractures (RUSHU) of < 8 to facilitate selective fixation for patients at risk of nonunion. METHODS: From 2008 to 2017, 215 patients (mean age 57 yrs (17 to 18), 61% female (n = 130/215)) with a nonoperatively managed humeral diaphyseal fracture were retrospectively identified. Union was achieved in 77% (n = 165/215) after initial nonoperative management, with 23% (n = 50/215) uniting after surgery for nonunion. The EuroQol five-dimension three-level health index (EQ-5D-3L) was obtained via postal survey. Multiple regression was used to determine the independent influence of patient, injury, and management factors upon the EQ-5D-3L. An incremental cost-effectiveness ratio (ICER) of < £20,000 per quality-adjusted life-year (QALY) gained was considered cost-effective. RESULTS: At a mean of 5.4 yrs (1.2 to 11.0), the mean EQ-5D-3L was 0.736 (95% confidence interval (CI) 0.697 to 0.775). Adjusted analysis demonstrated the EQ-5D-3L was inferior among patients who united after nonunion surgery (ß = 0.103; p = 0.032). Offering routine fixation to all patients to reduce the rate of nonunion would be associated with increased treatment costs of £1,542/patient, but would confer a potential EQ-5D-3L benefit of 0.120/patient over the study period. The ICER of routine fixation was £12,850/QALY gained. Selective fixation based on a RUSHU < 8 at six weeks post-injury would be associated with reduced treatment costs (£415/patient), and would confer a potential EQ-5D-3L benefit of 0.335 per 'at-risk patient'. CONCLUSION: Routine fixation for patients with humeral shaft fractures to reduce the rate of nonunion observed after nonoperative management appears to be a cost-effective intervention at five years post-injury. Selective fixation for patients at risk of nonunion based on their RUSHU may confer even greater cost-effectiveness, given the potential savings and improvement in health-related quality of life. Cite this article: Bone Jt Open 2022;3(7):566-572.

Bone grafting for scaphoid nonunion surgery : a systematic review and meta-analysis.

AIMS: The purpose of this systematic review was to determine the rates of union for vascularized versus non-vascularized grafting techniques in the operative management of scaphoid nonunion. Secondary aims were to determine the effect of the fixation techniques used, the source of grafting, as well as the influence of fracture location (proximal pole) and avascular necrosis (AVN). METHODS: A search of PubMed, MEDLINE, and Embase was performed in June 2021 using the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Review and Meta-Analyses statement and registered using the PROSPERO International prospective register of systematic reviews. The primary outcome was union rate. RESULTS: There were 78 studies that met the inclusion criteria with a total of 7,671 patients (87.8% male, 12.2% female). The mean age was 27.9 years (SD 3.8) and the mean follow-up was 30.9 months (SD 25.9). The mean union rate was 88.7% (95% confidence interval (CI) 85.0 to 92.5) for non-vascularized grafts versus 87.5% (95% CI 82.8 to 92.2) for vascularized grafts (p = 0.685). Pooled analysis of trial data alone found a mean union rate of 82.4% (95% CI 66.9% to 97.9%) for non-vascularized grafts and 89.4% (95% CI 84.1% to 94.7%) for vascularized grafts (p = 0.780). No significant difference was observed in union rates between any of the fixation techniques used in the studies (p = 0.502). Distal radius and iliac crest graft source had comparable mean union rates (86.9% (95% CI 83.1 to 90.7) vs 87.6% (95% CI 82.2 to 92.9); p = 0.841). Studies that excluded patients with both proximal pole fractures and AVN (n = 14) had a mean union rate of 96.5% (95% CI 94.2 to 98.9) that was significantly greater than the mean union rate of 86.8% (95% CI 83.2 to 90.4) observed in the remaining studies (p < 0.001). CONCLUSION: Current evidence suggests vascularized bone grafting does not yield significantly superior results to non-vascularized grafting in scaphoid nonunion management. However, potential selection bias lessens the certainty of these findings. The fixation type or source of the graft used was not found to influence union rates either. Sufficiently designed and powered prospective randomized controlled trials in this area are needed. Cite this article: Bone Joint J 2022;104-B(5):549-558.

Return to work and sport after a humeral shaft fracture.

AIMS: The primary aim of this study was to determine the rates of return to work (RTW) and sport (RTS) following a humeral shaft fracture. The secondary aim was to identify factors independently associated with failure to RTW or RTS. METHODS: From 2008 to 2017, all patients with a humeral diaphyseal fracture were retrospectively identified. Patient demographics and injury characteristics were recorded. Details of pre-injury employment, sporting participation, and levels of return post-injury were obtained via postal questionnaire. The University of California, Los Angeles (UCLA) Activity Scale was used to quantify physical activity among active patients. Regression was used to determine factors independently associated with failure to RTW or RTS. RESULTS: The Work Group comprised 177 patients in employment prior to injury (mean age 47 years (17 to 78); 51% female (n = 90)). Mean follow-up was 5.8 years (1.3 to 11). Overall, 85% (n = 151) returned to work at a mean of 14 weeks post-injury (0 to 104), but only 60% (n = 106) returned full-time to their previous employment. Proximal-third fractures (adjusted odds ratio (aOR) 4.0 (95% confidence interval (CI) 1.2 to 14.2); p = 0.029) were independently associated with failure to RTW. The Sport Group comprised 182 patients involved in sport prior to injury (mean age 52 years (18 to 85); 57% female (n = 104)). Mean follow-up was 5.4 years (1.3 to 11). The mean UCLA score reduced from 6.9 (95% CI 6.6 to 7.2) before injury to 6.1 (95% CI 5.8 to 6.4) post-injury (p < 0.001). There were 89% (n = 162) who returned to sport: 8% (n = 14) within three months, 34% (n = 62) within six months, and 70% (n = 127) within one year. Age ≥ 60 years was independently associated with failure to RTS (aOR 3.0 (95% CI 1.1 to 8.2); p = 0.036). No other factors were independently associated with failure to RTW or RTS. CONCLUSION: Most patients successfully return to work and sport following a humeral shaft fracture, albeit at a lower level of physical activity. Patients aged ≥ 60 yrs and those with proximal-third diaphyseal fractures are at increased risk of failing to return to activity. Cite this article: Bone Jt Open 2022;3(3):236-244.

Factors Associated with Patient-Reported Outcomes Following a Humeral Shaft Fracture: Nonunion Results in a Poorer Outcome Despite Union after Surgical Fixation.

OBJECTIVES: The primary aim was to assess patient-reported outcomes ≥1 year following a humeral diaphyseal fracture. The secondary aim was to compare outcomes of patients who united after initial management (operative/nonoperative) with those who united after nonunion fixation (NU-ORIF). DESIGN: Retrospective. SETTING: University teaching hospital. PATIENTS AND INTERVENTION: From 2008 to 2017, 291 patients [mean age, 55 years (17-86 years), 58% (n = 168/291) female] were available to complete an outcomes survey. Sixty-four (22%) were initially managed operatively and 227 (78%) nonoperatively. After initial management, 227 (78%) united (n = 62 operative, n = 165 nonoperative), 2 had a delayed union (both nonoperative), and 62 (21%) had a nonunion (n = 2 operative, n = 60 nonoperative). Fifty-two patients (93%, n = 52/56) united after NU-ORIF. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: QuickDASH, EuroQol-5 Dimension (EQ-5D)/EuroQol-Visual Analogue Scale (EQ-VAS), 12-item Short Form Physical (PCS) and Mental Component Summary (MCS). RESULTS: At a mean of 5.5 years (range, 1.2-11.0 years) postinjury, the mean QuickDASH was 20.8, EQ-5D was 0.730, EQ-VAS was 74, PCS was 44.8 and MCS was 50.2. Patients who united after NU-ORIF reported worse function (QuickDASH, 27.9 vs. 17.6; P = 0.003) and health-related quality of life (HRQoL; EQ-5D, 0.639 vs. 0.766; P = 0.008; EQ-VAS, 66 vs. 76; P = 0.036; PCS, 41.8 vs. 46.1; P = 0.036) than those who united primarily. Adjusting for confounders, union after NU-ORIF was independently associated with a poorer QuickDASH (difference, 8.1; P = 0.019) and EQ-5D (difference, -0.102; P = 0.028). CONCLUSIONS: Humeral diaphyseal union after NU-ORIF resulted in poorer patient-reported outcomes compared with union after initial management. Targeting early operative intervention to at-risk patients may mitigate the potential impact of nonunion on longer-term outcome. LEVEL OF EVIDENCE: Prognostic Level III. See Instructions for Authors for a complete description of levels of evidence.

Outcome following mini-open lower limb fasciotomy for chronic exertional compartment syndrome.

PURPOSE: The aim of this study was to report outcomes following mini-open lower limb fasciotomy (MLLF) in active adults with chronic exertional compartment syndrome (CECS). METHODS: From 2013-2018, 38 consecutive patients (mean age 31 years [16-60], 71% [n = 27/38] male) underwent MLLF. There were 21 unilateral procedures, 10 simultaneous bilateral and 7 staged bilateral. There were 22 anterior fasciotomies, five posterior and 11 four-compartment. Early complications were determined from medical records of 37/38 patients (97%) at a mean of four months (1-19). Patient-reported outcomes (including EuroQol scores [EQ-5D/EQ-VAS], return to sport and satisfaction) were obtained via postal survey from 27/38 respondents (71%) at a mean of 3.7 years (0.3-6.4). RESULTS: Complications occurred in 16% (n = 6/37): superficial infection (11%, n = 4/37), deep infection (3%, n = 1/37) and wound dehiscence (3%, n = 1/37). Eight per cent (n = 3/37) required revision fasciotomy for recurrent leg pain. At longer-term follow-up, 30% (n = 8/27) were asymptomatic and another 56% (n = 15/27) reported improved symptoms. The mean pain score improved from 6.1 to 2.5 during normal activity and 9.1 to 4.7 during sport (both p < 0.001). The mean EQ-5D was 0.781 (0.130-1) and EQ-VAS 77 (33-95). Of 25 patients playing sport preoperatively, 64% (n = 16/25) returned, 75% (n = 12/16) reporting improved exercise tolerance. Seventy-four per cent (n = 20/27) were satisfied and 81% (n = 22/27) would recommend the procedure. CONCLUSION: MLLF is safe and effective for active adults with CECS. The revision rate is low, and although recurrent symptoms are common most achieve symptomatic improvement, with reduced activity-related leg pain and good health-related quality of life. The majority return to sport and are satisfied with their outcome.

Open Reduction and Internal Fixation for Humeral Shaft Nonunion: Bone Grafting Is Not Routinely Required and Avoids Donor Site Morbidity.

OBJECTIVES: To document union rate, complications and patient-reported outcomes after open reduction and internal fixation (ORIF), with and without bone grafting (BG), for humeral diaphyseal nonunion after failed nonoperative management. DESIGN: Retrospective. SETTING: University teaching hospital. PATIENTS AND INTERVENTION: From 2008 to 2017, 86 consecutive patients [mean age 59 years (range 17-86), 71% (n = 61/86) women] underwent nonunion ORIF (plate and screws) at a mean of 7 months postinjury (range 3-21.5). Eleven (13%) underwent supplementary BG. MAIN OUTCOME MEASUREMENTS: Union rate and complications for 83 patients (97%) at a mean of 10 months (3-61). Patient-reported outcomes (QuickDASH, EQ-5D, EQ-VAS, SF-12, satisfaction) for 53 living, cognitively-intact patients (78%) at a mean of 4.9 years (0.3-9.2). RESULTS: Ninety-three percent (n = 77/83) achieved union after nonunion ORIF. Complications included recalcitrant nonunion (7%, n = 6/83), iatrogenic radial nerve palsy (6%, n = 5/83), infection (superficial 7%, n = 6/83; deep 2%, n = 2/83), and iliac crest donor site morbidity (38%, n = 3/8). The union rate with BG was 78% (n = 7/9) and without was 95% (n = 70/74; P = 0.125), and was not associated with the nonunion type (atrophic 91%, n = 53/58; hypertrophic 96%, n = 24/25; P = 0.663). Median QuickDASH was 22.7 (0-95), EQ-5D 0.710 (-0.181-1), EQ-visual analog scale 80 (10-100), SF-12 physical component summary 41.9 (16-60.5), and mental component summary 52.6 (18.7-67.7). Nineteen percent (n = 10/53) were dissatisfied with their outcome. CONCLUSIONS: ORIF for humeral diaphyseal nonunion was associated with a high rate of union. Routine BG was not required and avoided the risk of donor site morbidity. One in 5 patients were dissatisfied despite the majority achieving union. LEVEL OF EVIDENCE: Therapeutic Level III. See Instructions for Authors for a complete description of levels of evidence.

The 'nightstick' ischial fracture: a unique oddity of the pelvic injury family.

We present an unusual ischial fracture unreported in the literature. We discuss the mechanism and describe the appropriate investigations and surgical management of this fracture. A 36-year-old man sustained a direct blow to his right buttock following a fall from a dirt bike. Examination revealed a firm haematoma, with severe pain on any stretch involving the posterior compartment of the thigh. Radiographs revealed a displaced fracture of the ischial body. CT confirmed integrity of the pelvic ring. The patient underwent open reduction and internal fixation with a partially threaded cannulated screw via a 'modified longitudinal' posterior approach to the ischium. The patient was managed partially weight-bearing for 6 weeks; 6-month follow-up confirmed satisfactory clinical and radiographic outcomes. Clinicians should be aware of this novel pelvic fracture and its unusual presentation, currently not included in any pelvic fracture classification system. We report a novel operative technique for appropriate surgical management of such injuries.

Factors associated with humeral shaft nonunion.

BACKGROUND: The primary aim was to identify patient and injury factors independently associated with humeral diaphyseal fracture nonunion after nonoperative management. The secondary aim was to determine the effect of management (operative/nonoperative) on nonunion. METHODS: From 2008-2017, a total of 734 humeral shaft fractures (732 consecutive skeletally mature patients) were retrospectively identified from a trauma database. Follow-up was available for 663 fractures (662 patients, 90%) that formed the study cohort. Patient and injury characteristics were recorded. There were 523 patients (79%) managed nonoperatively and 139 (21%) managed operatively. Outcome (union/nonunion) was determined from medical records and radiographs. RESULTS: The median age at injury was 57 (range 16-96) years and 54% (n = 359/662) were female. Median follow-up was 5 (1.2-74) months. Nonunion occurred in 22.7% (n = 119/524) of nonoperatively managed injuries. Multivariate analysis demonstrated preinjury nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs; odds ratio [OR] 20.58, 95% confidence interval [CI] 2.12-199.48; P = .009) and glenohumeral arthritis (OR 2.44, 95% CI 1.03-5.77; P = .043) were independently associated with an increased risk of nonunion. Operative fixation was independently associated with a lower risk of nonunion (2.9%, n = 4/139) compared with nonoperative management (OR for nonoperative/operative management 9.91, 95% CI 3.25-30.23; P < .001). Based on these findings, 5 patients would need to undergo primary operative fixation in order to avoid 1 nonunion. CONCLUSIONS: Preinjury NSAIDs and glenohumeral arthritis were independently associated with nonunion following nonoperative management of a humeral diaphyseal fracture. Operative fixation was the independent factor most strongly associated with a lower risk of nonunion. Targeting early operative fixation to at-risk patients may reduce the rate of nonunion and the morbidity associated with delayed definitive management.

Fractures of the proximal- and middle-thirds of the humeral shaft should be considered as fragility fractures.

AIMS: The aim of this study was to determine the current incidence and epidemiology of humeral diaphyseal fractures. The secondary aim was to explore variation in patient and injury characteristics by fracture location within the humeral diaphysis. METHODS: Over ten years (2008 to 2017), all adult patients (aged ≥ 16 years) sustaining an acute fracture of the humeral diaphysis managed at the study centre were retrospectively identified from a trauma database. Patient age, sex, medical/social background, injury mechanism, fracture classification, and associated injuries were recorded and analyzed. RESULTS: A total of 900 fractures (typical 88.9%, n = 800/900; pathological 8.3%, n = 75/900; periprosthetic 2.8%, n = 25/900) were identified in 898 patients (mean age 57 years (16 to 97), 55.5% (n = 498/898) female). Overall fracture incidence was 12.6/100,000/year. For patients with a typical fracture (n = 798, mean age 56 years (16 to 96), 55.1% (n = 440/798) female), there was a bimodal distribution in men and unimodal distribution in older women (Type G). A fall from standing was the most common injury mechanism (72.6%, n = 581/800). The majority of fractures involved the middle-third of the diaphysis (47.6%, n = 381/800) followed by the proximal- (30.5%, n = 244/800) and distal-thirds (n = 175/800, 21.9%). In all, 18 injuries (2.3%) were open and a radial nerve palsy occurred in 6.7% (n = 53/795). Fractures involving the proximal- and middle-thirds were more likely to occur in older (p < 0.001), female patients (p < 0.001) with comorbidities (p < 0.001) after a fall from standing (p < 0.001). Proximal-third fractures were also more likely to occur in patients with alcohol excess (p = 0.003) and to be classified as AO-Orthopaedic Trauma Association type B or C injuries (p < 0.001). CONCLUSION: This study updates the incidence and epidemiology of humeral diaphyseal fractures. Important differences in patient and injury characteristics were observed based upon fracture location. Injuries involving the proximal- and middle-thirds of the humeral diaphysis should be considered as fragility fractures. Cite this article: Bone Joint J 2020;102-B(11):1475-1483.

A prospective randomised controlled trial of operative versus non-operative management of fractures of the humeral diaphysis: the HUmeral Shaft Fracture FIXation (HU-FIX) Study protocol.

BACKGROUND: Humeral shaft fractures constitute around 1% of adult fractures in the UK, with an annual incidence of approximately 13 per 100,000 population. Historically, these injuries have been primarily managed non-operatively, with operative fixation reserved for specific indications. Although some recent retrospective studies have suggested there are potential benefits of operative fixation over humeral bracing, there is a deficiency in level 1 evidence to support operative management as the primary treatment for humeral shaft fractures. METHODS/DESIGN: This single-centre prospective randomised controlled trial aims to recruit 70 adult patients with an isolated closed fracture of the humeral diaphysis into one of two treatment arms: operative (n = 35) or non-operative (n = 35). The operative arm will undergo open reduction and internal fixation (ORIF) of the fracture using a standard fixation technique (plate and screws). The non-operative arm will be fitted with a prefabricated humeral brace until fracture union. All patients will be followed up for 1 year post-intervention. The primary outcome measure will be the Disabilities of the Arm, Shoulder and Hand (DASH) score at 3 months post-intervention. Secondary outcome measures will include pain, treatment complications, return to work or sporting activities, shoulder and elbow range of motion, radiographic assessment, EuroQol (EQ-5D) Health Outcome score and 12-item Short Form (SF-12) Health Survey score. A health economic analysis will be performed to compare the cost implications of each treatment strategy. DISCUSSION: This randomised controlled trial will provide level 1 evidence comparing a standard ORIF technique against functional bracing for isolated closed humeral shaft fractures. The investigators hope that the study results will assist surgeons in their decision-making when managing patients with these injuries. TRIAL REGISTRATION: ClinicalTrials.gov, NCT03689335 . Registered on 28 September 2018 (retrospectively).

Open Reduction and Internal Fixation of Distal Tibial Pilon Fractures.

Intra-articular fractures of the distal end of the tibia, more commonly referred to as pilon fractures, account for approximately 5% to 7% of all tibial fractures1,2. Type-C fractures present a unique surgical challenge: a total articular fracture contained within a vulnerable soft-tissue envelope. Treatment options include internal fixation3, external fixation with or without limited internal fixation4, and primary ankle arthrodesis2. The management, and particularly the timing, of surgery is often dictated by the patient's general state of health, soft-tissue condition, and fracture comminution as well as the experience of the surgeon. The surgical goals are to reconstruct the articular surface of the plafond, restore limb alignment, and protect the soft-tissue envelope. Since the publication of the seminal paper by Sirkin et al.5 in 1999, it has become orthopaedic orthodoxy to stage the surgery of pilon fractures, adopting a so-called span, scan, and plan approach. We more commonly operate early, and in a recently published retrospective review of 102 type-C pilon fractures in 99 patients, 73 patients (73 fractures; 71.6%) underwent primary internal fixation6. Outcomes were equivalent to the results of a staged protocol: 36 complications in 28 patients (28 fractures; 27.5%), with superficial (n = 9) and deep (n = 9) infection being the most common. Forty-one fractures (40.2%) required at least 1 additional operation, with removal of symptomatic metalwork being the primary indication (n = 30). No patient required an amputation. At a mean follow-up of 6 years, both the mean Foot and Ankle Disability Index (FADI) and mean Foot and Ankle Outcome Score (FAOS) were 76 (range, 0 to 100). Median patient satisfaction was 7 of 10. The results demonstrated a satisfactory outcome following primary internal fixation in appropriately selected patients. This instructional video outlines the surgical technique used. The key steps of the procedure are (1) preoperative planning with assessment of imaging and soft tissues; (2) application of a thigh tourniquet and placement of the patient predominantly in the supine position, unless the fracture configuration requires a prone position; (3) intraoperative use of a spanning external fixator; (4) careful exposure of the distal end of the tibia, dictated by the fracture configuration, with the anterolateral, anteromedial, and direct medial approaches most commonly used, elevating full-thickness tissue flaps wherever possible; (5) fracture reduction and fixation through a joint arthrotomy and fracture windows, allowing visualization of the articular margins, followed by initial Kirschner wire stabilization and definitive lag screw fixation; (6) application of a low-profile, locking or nonlocking plate in either buttress or bridging mode, joining the articular-metaphyseal block to the distal tibial diaphysis; (7) fixation of an associated fibular fracture, typically with intramedullary nailing and removal of the external fixator; (8) layered closure according to surgeon preference; and (9) postoperative protocol, consisting of a removable orthosis with a strict non-weight-bearing restriction for up to 3 months.

Tension-Band Wire Fixation of Olecranon Fractures.

Olecranon fractures account for approximately 20% of fractures of the proximal part of the forearm1. Clinicians may consider nonoperative management for elderly low-demand patients2, whereas operative fixation is recommended for active patients with a displaced fracture. Tension-band wire (TBW) fixation is commonly employed for simple isolated stable displaced fractures of the olecranon (type IIA according to the Mayo classification)3-5. In contrast, plate fixation is thought to provide superior outcomes for unstable comminuted olecranon fractures. Biomechanical principles of the TBW construct are based on the hypotheses of absolute fracture stability, exploiting functional limb movement, and converting tensile forces into compression through the actions of the triceps and brachialis. The surgical goals are to restore articular congruity, provide stable reliable fixation, and allow early mobilization to minimize joint stiffness. In a recent prospective randomized trial comparing plate fixation with TBW in 67 active adult patients, we found no difference between groups with respect to either patient or surgeon-reported outcome measures6. The overall complication rate was higher following TBW fixation, with implant removal required for 1 in 2 patients. However, it may still be the preferable procedure given that the more serious issues of infection and revision surgery occurred exclusively following plate fixation. The key steps of the procedure are (1) preoperative planning with careful assessment of radiographs; (2) positioning the patient supine and gaining exposure with a posterior longitudinal direct midline incision, raising lateral and medial fasciocutaneous flaps, and developing subperiosteal dissection in the interval between the flexor carpi ulnaris and extensor carpi ulnaris to visualize the fracture; (3) visual reduction maintained with a pointed reduction clamp, with joint congruity confirmed with an image intensifier if needed; (4) creation of the TBW construct with 2 parallel 1.6-mm Kirschner wires passed longitudinally from the proximal fragment into the distal part of the ulna, engaging the anterior cortex with care, and a 1.2-mm flexible cerclage wire placed through a transverse tunnel 3 to 4 cm distal to the fracture, passed posterior to the 2 Kirschner wires, and secured in a figure-of-8 configuration; (5) appropriate tensioning of the construct followed by trimming and burial of the wire ends; (6) layered wound closure according to surgeon preference; and (7) a postoperative protocol consisting of application of an above-the-elbow synthetic bandage, which is worn for 10 to 14 days, and gentle active mobilization under physiotherapy supervision. We advise against heavy lifting for at least 6 to 8 weeks and do not routinely remove implants unless they are symptomatic.

Acute compartment syndrome of the forearm.

BACKGROUND: The aims of this study were to document our experience with acute forearm compartment syndrome and to determine the risk factors for the need for split-thickness skin-grafting and the development of complications after fasciotomy. METHODS: We identified from our trauma database all patients who underwent fasciotomy for an acute forearm compartment syndrome over a twenty-two-year period. Diagnosis was made with use of clinical signs in all patients, with compartment pressure monitoring used as a diagnostic adjunct in some patients. Outcome measures were the use of split-thickness skin grafts and the identification of complications following forearm fasciotomy. RESULTS: There were ninety patients in the study cohort, with a mean age of thirty-three years (range, thirteen to eighty-one years) and a significant male predominance (eighty-two patients; p < 0.001). A fracture of the radius or ulna, or both, was seen in sixty-two patients (69%), with soft-tissue injuries as the causative factor in twenty-eight (31%). The median time to fasciotomy was twelve hours (range, two to seventy-two hours). Risk factors for requiring split-thickness skin-grafting were younger age and a crush injury (p < 0.05 for both). Risk factors for the development of complications were a delay in fasciotomy of more than six hours (p = 0.018) and preoperative motor symptoms, which approached significance (p = 0.068). CONCLUSIONS: Forearm compartment syndrome requiring fasciotomy predominantly affects males and can occur following either a fracture or soft-tissue injury. Age is an important predictor of undergoing split-thickness skin-grafting for wound closure. Complications occur in a third of patients and are associated with an increasing time from injury to fasciotomy.