New insights into plant natriuretic peptide evolution: From the lysogenic conversion in Xanthomonas to the lateral transfer to the whitefly Bemisia tabaci.

Plant natriuretic peptide-like (PNP) are signaling molecules related to adaptive responses to stress. The Arabidopsis thaliana PNP (AtPNP-A) is capable of modulating catalase 2 (CAT2) and rubisco activase (RCA) activity in some circumstances. Interestingly, many plant-pathogens co-opted PNP-like molecules to their benefit. For instance, the citrus pathogen Xanthomonas citri carries a PNP-like (XacPNP) that can mimic and regulate plant homeostasis, and many phytopathogenic fungi carry effectors (e.g., Ave1 and AvrLm6) that are indeed PNP-like homologs. This work investigates the PNP-like evolution across the tree of life, revealing many parallel gains and duplications in plant and fungi kingdoms. All PNP-like proteins in the final dataset are structurally similar, containing the AtPNP-A active domains modulating CAT2 activity and RCA interaction. Comparative genomics evinced that XacPNP is a lysogenic conversion factor associated with a Myoviridae-like prophage identified in many Xanthomonas species. Surprisingly, a PNP-like homolog was identified in Bemisia tabaci, an important agricultural pest, being to date the second example of lateral gene transfer (LGT) from plant to the whitefly. Moreover, the Bemisia PNP-like homolog can also be considered a potential new effector of this phloem-feeding insect. Noteworthy, the whiteflies infest many plants carrying PNP-like copies and interact with some of their bacterial and fungal pathogens, strongly suggesting complex recipient/donor traits of PNP by LGT and bringing new insights into the evolution of host-pathogen arms race across the tree of life.

A Secreted Chorismate Mutase from Xanthomonas arboricola pv. juglandis Attenuates Virulence and Walnut Blight Symptoms.

Walnut blight is a significant above-ground disease of walnuts caused by Xanthomonas arboricola pv. juglandis (Xaj). The secreted form of chorismate mutase (CM), a key enzyme of the shikimate pathway regulating plant immunity, is highly conserved between plant-associated beta and gamma proteobacteria including phytopathogens belonging to the Xanthomonadaceae family. To define its role in walnut blight disease, a dysfunctional mutant of chorismate mutase was created in a copper resistant strain Xaj417 (XajCM). Infections of immature walnut Juglans regia (Jr) fruit with XajCM were hypervirulent compared with infections with the wildtype Xaj417 strain. The in vitro growth rate, size and cellular morphology were similar between the wild-type and XajCM mutant strains, however the quantification of bacterial cells by dPCR within walnut hull tissues showed a 27% increase in XajCM seven days post-infection. To define the mechanism of hypervirulence, proteome analysis was conducted to compare walnut hull tissues inoculated with the wild type to those inoculated with the XajCM mutant strain. Proteome analysis revealed 3296 Jr proteins (five decreased and ten increased with FDR ≤ 0.05) and 676 Xaj417 proteins (235 increased in XajCM with FDR ≤ 0.05). Interestingly, the most abundant protein in Xaj was a polygalacturonase, while in Jr it was a polygalacturonase inhibitor. These results suggest that this secreted chorismate mutase may be an important virulence suppressor gene that regulates Xaj417 virulence response, allowing for improved bacterial survival in the plant tissues.

Proteome Analysis of Walnut Bacterial Blight Disease.

The interaction between the plant host, walnut (Juglans regia; Jr), and a deadly pathogen (Xanthomonas arboricola pv. juglandis 417; Xaj) can lead to walnut bacterial blight (WB), which depletes walnut productivity by degrading the nut quality. Here, we dissect this pathosystem using tandem mass tag quantitative proteomics. Walnut hull tissues inoculated with Xaj were compared to mock-inoculated tissues, and 3972 proteins were identified, of which 3296 are from Jr and 676 from Xaj. Proteins with differential abundance include oxidoreductases, proteases, and enzymes involved in energy metabolism and amino acid interconversion pathways. Defense responses and plant hormone biosynthesis were also increased. Xaj proteins detected in infected tissues demonstrate its ability to adapt to the host microenvironment, limiting iron availability, coping with copper toxicity, and maintaining energy and intermediary metabolism. Secreted proteases and extracellular secretion apparatus such as type IV pilus for twitching motility and type III secretion effectors indicate putative factors recognized by the host. Taken together, these results suggest intense degradation processes, oxidative stress, and general arrest of the biosynthetic metabolism in infected nuts. Our results provide insights into molecular mechanisms and highlight potential molecular tools for early detection and disease control strategies.

Genome-Wide Profiling and Phylogenetic Analysis of the SWEET Sugar Transporter Gene Family in Walnut and Their Lack of Responsiveness to Xanthomonas arboricola pv. juglandis Infection.

Following photosynthesis, sucrose is translocated to sink organs, where it provides the primary source of carbon and energy to sustain plant growth and development. Sugar transporters from the SWEET (sugar will eventually be exported transporter) family are rate-limiting factors that mediate sucrose transport across concentration gradients, sustain yields, and participate in reproductive development, plant senescence, stress responses, as well as support plant-pathogen interaction, the focus of this study. We identified 25 SWEET genes in the walnut genome and distinguished each by its individual gene structure and pattern of expression in different walnut tissues. Their chromosomal locations, cis-acting motifs within their 5' regulatory elements, and phylogenetic relationship patterns provided the first comprehensive analysis of the SWEET gene family of sugar transporters in walnut. This family is divided into four clades, the analysis of which suggests duplication and expansion of the SWEET gene family in Juglans regia. In addition, tissue-specific gene expression signatures suggest diverse possible functions for JrSWEET genes. Although these are commonly used by pathogens to harness sugar products from their plant hosts, little was known about their role during Xanthomonas arboricola pv. juglandis (Xaj) infection. We monitored the expression profiles of the JrSWEET genes in different tissues of "Chandler" walnuts when challenged with pathogen Xaj417 and concluded that SWEET-mediated sugar translocation from the host is not a trigger for walnut blight disease development. This may be directly related to the absence of type III secretion system-dependent transcription activator-like effectors (TALEs) in Xaj417, which suggests different strategies are employed by this pathogen to promote susceptibility to this major aboveground disease of walnuts.

Detection and identification of Xanthomonas pathotypes associated with citrus diseases using comparative genomics and multiplex PCR.

BACKGROUND: In Citrus cultures, three species of Xanthomonas are known to cause distinct diseases. X. citri subsp. citri patothype A, X. fuscans subsp. aurantifolii pathotypes B and C, and X. alfalfae subsp. citrumelonis, are the causative agents of cancrosis A, B, C, and citrus bacterial spots, respectively. Although these species exhibit different levels of virulence and aggressiveness, only limited alternatives are currently available for proper and early detection of these diseases in the fields. The present study aimed to develop a new molecular diagnostic method based on genomic sequences derived from the four species of Xanthomonas. RESULTS: Using comparative genomics approaches, primers were synthesized for the identification of the four causative agents of citrus diseases. These primers were validated for their specificity to their target DNA by both conventional and multiplex PCR. Upon evaluation, their sensitivity was found to be 0.02 ng/µl in vitro and 1.5 × 104 CFU ml-1 in infected leaves. Additionally, none of the primers were able to generate amplicons in 19 other genomes of Xanthomonas not associated with Citrus and one species of Xylella, the causal agent of citrus variegated chlorosis (CVC). This denotes strong specificity of the primers for the different species of Xanthomonas investigated in this study. CONCLUSIONS: We demonstrated that these markers can be used as potential candidates for performing in vivo molecular diagnosis exclusively for citrus-associated Xanthomonas. The bioinformatics pipeline developed in this study to design specific genomic regions is capable of generating specific primers. It is freely available and can be utilized for any other model organism.

Origin and diversification of Xanthomonas citri subsp. citri pathotypes revealed by inclusive phylogenomic, dating, and biogeographic analyses.

BACKGROUND: Xanthomonas citri subsp. citri pathotypes cause bacterial citrus canker, being responsible for severe agricultural losses worldwide. The A pathotype has a broad host spectrum, while A* and Aw are more restricted both in hosts and in geography. Two previous phylogenomic studies led to contrasting well-supported clades for sequenced genomes of these pathotypes. No extensive biogeographical or divergence dating analytic approaches have been so far applied to available genomes. RESULTS: Based on a larger sampling of genomes than in previous studies (including six new genomes sequenced by our group, adding to a total of 95 genomes), phylogenomic analyses resulted in different resolutions, though overall indicating that A + AW is the most likely true clade. Our results suggest the high degree of recombination at some branches and the fast diversification of lineages are probable causes for this phylogenetic blurring effect. One of the genomes analyzed, X. campestris pv. durantae, was shown to be an A* strain; this strain has been reported to infect a plant of the family Verbenaceae, though there are no reports of any X. citri subsp. citri pathotypes infecting any plant outside the Citrus genus. Host reconstruction indicated the pathotype ancestor likely had plant hosts in the family Fabaceae, implying an ancient jump to the current Rutaceae hosts. Extensive dating analyses indicated that the origin of X. citri subsp. citri occurred more recently than the main phylogenetic splits of Citrus plants, suggesting dispersion rather than host-directed vicariance as the main driver of geographic expansion. An analysis of 120 pathogenic-related genes revealed pathotype-associated patterns of presence/absence. CONCLUSIONS: Our results provide novel insights into the evolutionary history of X. citri subsp. citri as well as a sound phylogenetic foundation for future evolutionary and genomic studies of its pathotypes.

Origin and diversification of Xanthomonas citri subsp. citri pathotypes revealed by inclusive phylogenomic, dating, and biogeographic analyses

Background: Xanthomonas citri subsp. citri pathotypes cause bacterial citrus canker, being responsible for severe agricultural losses worldwide. The A pathotype has a broad host spectrum, while A* and Aw are more restricted both in hosts and in geography. Two previous phylogenomic studies led to contrasting well-supported clades for sequenced genomes of these pathotypes. No extensive biogeographical or divergence dating analytic approaches have been so far applied to available genomes. Results: Based on a larger sampling of genomes than in previous studies (including six new genomes sequenced by our group, adding to a total of 95 genomes), phylogenomic analyses resulted in different resolutions, though overall indicating that A + AW is the most likely true clade. Our results suggest the high degree of recombination atsome branches and the fast diversification of lineages are probable causes for this phylogenetic blurring effect. One of the genomes analyzed, X. campestris pv. durantae, was shown to be an A* strain; this strain has been reported to infect a plant of the family Verbenaceae, though there are no reports of any X. citri subsp. citri pathotypes infecting any plant outside the Citrus genus. Host reconstruction indicated the pathotype ancestor likely had plant hosts in the family Fabaceae, implying an ancient jump to the current Rutaceae hosts. Extensive dating analyses indicated that the origin of X. citri subsp. citri occurred more recently than the main phylogenetic splits of Citrus plants, suggesting dispersion rather than host-directed vicariance as the main driver of geographic expansion. An analysis of 120 pathogenic-related genes revealed pathotype-associated patterns of presence/absence. Conclusions: Our results provide novel insights into the evolutionary history of X. citri subsp. citri as well as a sound phylogenetic foundation for future evolutionary and genomic studies of its pathotypes

Origin and diversification of Xanthomonas citri subsp. citri pathotypes revealed by inclusive phylogenomic, dating, and biogeographic analyses

Background: Xanthomonas citri subsp. citri pathotypes cause bacterial citrus canker, being responsible for severe agricultural losses worldwide. The A pathotype has a broad host spectrum, while A* and Aw are more restricted both in hosts and in geography. Two previous phylogenomic studies led to contrasting well-supported clades for sequenced genomes of these pathotypes. No extensive biogeographical or divergence dating analytic approaches have been so far applied to available genomes. Results: Based on a larger sampling of genomes than in previous studies (including six new genomes sequenced by our group, adding to a total of 95 genomes), phylogenomic analyses resulted in different resolutions, though overall indicating that A + AW is the most likely true clade. Our results suggest the high degree of recombination atsome branches and the fast diversification of lineages are probable causes for this phylogenetic blurring effect. One of the genomes analyzed, X. campestris pv. durantae, was shown to be an A* strain; this strain has been reported to infect a plant of the family Verbenaceae, though there are no reports of any X. citri subsp. citri pathotypes infecting any plant outside the Citrus genus. Host reconstruction indicated the pathotype ancestor likely had plant hosts in the family Fabaceae, implying an ancient jump to the current Rutaceae hosts. Extensive dating analyses indicated that the origin of X. citri subsp. citri occurred more recently than the main phylogenetic splits of Citrus plants, suggesting dispersion rather than host-directed vicariance as the main driver of geographic expansion. An analysis of 120 pathogenic-related genes revealed pathotype-associated patterns of presence/absence. Conclusions: Our results provide novel insights into the evolutionary history of X. citri subsp. citri as well as a sound phylogenetic foundation for future evolutionary and genomic studies of its pathotypes

Brazilian Ironstone Plant Communities as Reservoirs of Culturable Bacteria With Diverse Biotechnological Potential.

Extensive mineral extractivism in the Brazilian Iron Quadrangle (IQ) region has destroyed large areas of land, decimating plant species, and their associated microbiota. Very little is known about the microbiota of the region; hence, cultivable bacteria associated with plants of its soils were investigated for their biotechnological potential. Samples were collected from nine plant species and six soils, and 65 cultivable bacterial isolates were obtained. These represent predominantly gram-positive bacilli (70%) capable of producing amylases (55%), proteases (63%), cellulases (47%), indole acetic acid (IAA) (46%), siderophores (26%), and to solubilize phosphate (9%). In addition, 65% of these were resistant to ampicillin, 100% were sensitive to tetracycline, and 97% were tolerant to high arsenic concentrations. Three isolates were studied further: the isolate FOB3 (Rosenbergiella sp.) produced high concentrations of IAA in vitro in the absence of tryptophan - shown by the significant improvement in plant germination and growth rate where the isolate was present. For isolates C25 (Acinetobacter sp.) and FG3 (Serratia sp.), plasmids were purified and inserted into Escherichia coli cells where they modified the physiological profile of the transformed strains. The E. coli::pFG3B strain showed the highest capacity for biofilm production, as well as an increase in the replication rate, arsenic tolerance and catalase activity. Moreover, this strain increased DNA integrity in the presence of arsenic, compared to the wild-type strain. These results help to explain the importance of bacteria in maintaining plant survival in ferruginous, rocky soils, acting as plant growth promoters, and to highlight the biotechnological potential of these bacteria. IMPORTANCE  The Iron Quadrangle region is responsible for ∼60% of all Brazilian iron production and, at the same time, is responsible for housing a wide diversity of landscapes, and consequently, a series of endemic plant species and dozens of rare species - all of which have been poorly studied. Studies exploring the microbiota associated with these plant species are limited and in the face of the continuous pressure of extractive action, some species along with their microbiota are being decimated. To understand the potential of this microbiota, we discovered that cultivable bacterial isolates obtained from plants in the ferruginous rocky soil of the Iron Quadrangle region have diverse biotechnological potential, revealing a genetic ancestry still unknown.

A Practical Guide for Comparative Genomics of Mobile Genetic Elements in Prokaryotic Genomes.

Mobile genetic elements (MGEs) are an important feature of prokaryote genomes but are seldom well annotated and, consequently, are often underestimated. MGEs include transposons (Tn), insertion sequences (ISs), prophages, genomic islands (GEIs), integrons, and integrative and conjugative elements (ICEs). They are intimately involved in genome evolution and promote phenomena such as genomic expansion and rearrangement, emergence of virulence and pathogenicity, and symbiosis. In spite of the annotation bottleneck, there are so far at least 75 different programs and databases dedicated to prokaryotic MGE analysis and annotation, and this number is rapidly growing. Here, we present a practical guide to explore, compare, and visualize prokaryote MGEs using a combination of available software and databases tailored to small scale genome analyses. This protocol can be coupled with expert MGE annotation and exploited for evolutionary and comparative genomic analyses.

Proteomics-based identification of differentially abundant proteins reveals adaptation mechanisms of Xanthomonas citri subsp. citri during Citrus sinensis infection.

BACKGROUND: Xanthomonas citri subsp. citri (Xac) is the causal agent of citrus canker. A proteomic analysis under in planta infectious and non-infectious conditions was conducted in order to increase our knowledge about the adaptive process of Xac during infection. RESULTS: For that, a 2D-based proteomic analysis of Xac at 1, 3 and 5 days after inoculation, in comparison to Xac growth in NB media was carried out and followed by MALDI-TOF-TOF identification of 124 unique differentially abundant proteins. Among them, 79 correspond to up-regulated proteins in at least one of the three stages of infection. Our results indicate an important role of proteins related to biofilm synthesis, lipopolysaccharides biosynthesis, and iron uptake and metabolism as possible modulators of plant innate immunity, and revealed an intricate network of proteins involved in reactive oxygen species adaptation during Plants` Oxidative Burst response. We also identified proteins previously unknown to be involved in Xac-Citrus interaction, including the hypothetical protein XAC3981. A mutant strain for this gene has proved to be non-pathogenic in respect to classical symptoms of citrus canker induced in compatible plants. CONCLUSIONS: This is the first time that a protein repertoire is shown to be active and working in an integrated manner during the infection process in a compatible host, pointing to an elaborate mechanism for adaptation of Xac once inside the plant.

Plant Growth Promoting Bacteria Associated with Langsdorffia hypogaea-Rhizosphere-Host Biological Interface: A Neglected Model of Bacterial Prospection.

Soil is a habitat where plant roots and microorganisms interact. In the region of the Brazilian Iron Quadrangle (IQ), studies involving the interaction between microbiota and plants have been neglected. Even more neglected are the studies involving the holoparasite plant Langsdorffia hypogaea Mart. (Balanophoraceae). The geomorphological peculiarities of IQ soil, rich in iron ore, as well as the model of interaction between L. hypogaea, its hosts and the soil provide a unique niche that acts as selective pressure to the evolution of plant growth-promoting bacteria (PGPB). The aim of this study was to prospect the bacterial microbiota of holoparasitic plant L. hypogaea, its plant host and corresponding rhizosphere of IQ soil, and to analyze the potential of these isolates as PGPB. We obtained samples of 11 individuals of L. hypogaea containing fragments of host and rhizosphere remnants, resulting in 81 isolates associated with Firmicutes and Proteobacteria phyla. The ability to produce siderophores, hydrocyanic acid (HCN), indole-3-acetic acid (IAA), nitrogen (N2) fixation, hydrolytic enzymes secretion and inhibition of enteropathogens, and phytopathogens were evaluated. Of the total isolates, 62, 86, and 93% produced, respectively, siderophores, IAA, and were able to fix N2. In addition, 27 and 20% of isolates inhibited the growth of enteropathogens and phytopathogens, respectively, and 58% were able to produce at least one hydrolytic activity investigated. The high number of isolates that produce siderophores and indole-3-acetic acid suggests that this microbiota may be important for adaptation of plants to IQ. The results demonstrate for the first time the biological importance of Brazilian IQ species as reservoirs of specific microbiotas that might be used as PGPB on agricultural land or antropized soils that needs to be reforested.

Deletion of pilA, a Minor Pilin-Like Gene, from Xanthomonas citri subsp. citri Influences Bacterial Physiology and Pathogenesis.

Type IV pili (Tfp) are widely distributed adhesins of bacterial surfaces. In plant pathogenic bacteria, Tfp are involved in host colonization and pathogenesis. Xanthomonas citri subsp. citri (Xcc) is the phytopathogen responsible for citrus canker disease. In this work, three Tfp structural genes, fimA, fimA1, and pilA from Xcc were studied. A pilA mutant strain from Xcc (XccΔpilA) was constructed and differences in physiological features, such as motilities, adhesion, and biofilm formation, were observed. A structural study of the purified Tfp fractions from Xcc wild-type and Xcc∆pilA showed that pilins are glycosylated in both strains and that FimA and FimA1 are the main structural components of the pili. Furthermore, smaller lesion symptoms and reduced bacterial growth were produced by Xcc∆pilA in orange plants compared to the wild-type strain. These results indicate that the minor pilin-like gene, pilA, is involved in Tfp performance during the infection process.

Comparative proteome analysis reveals that blood and sugar meals induce differential protein expression in Aedes aegypti female heads.

Aedes aegypti females ingest sugar or blood to obtain the nutrients needed to maintain cellular homeostasis. During human blood ingestion, female mosquitoes may transmit different viruses such as dengue, yellow fever and, more recently, zika and chikungunya. Here, we report changes in protein expression in the heads of adult female Ae. aegypti mosquitoes in response to the ingestion of blood or sugar. Proteins extracted from the heads of Ae. aegypti fed exclusively on blood (BF) or sugar (SF) were trypsin hydrolyzed (off-gel) and analyzed by the reverse-phase nano-liquid chromatography coupled with hybrid mass spectrometry. A total of 1139 proteins were identified in female heads, representing 7.4% of the predicted proteins in Ae. aegypti genome (total = 15 419 active genes). Gene ontology annotation and categories showed that, in this insect, the head was rich in proteins involved in the metabolic process, proton transport, organelle, macromolecular complex, structural molecule activity, antioxidant activity, and catalytic activity. Our report is the first indicating that many of the annotated genes are translated into functional proteins in heads of adult female Ae. aegypti. Interestingly, we identified 8.7 times more exclusively expressed proteins involved in signal transduction, replication-transcription-translation (5.5 x), and transport (2.9 x) activity in BF than in SF groups. This paper discusses the protein profile of Ae. aegypti female heads and its implications for blood ingestion and carbohydrate intake.

Unravelling potential virulence factor candidates in Xanthomonas citri. subsp. citri by secretome analysis.

Citrus canker is a major disease affecting citrus production in Brazil. It's mainly caused by Xanthomonas citri subsp. citri strain 306 pathotype A (Xac). We analysed the differential expression of proteins secreted by wild type Xac and an asymptomatic mutant for hrpB4 (ΔhrpB4) grown in Nutrient Broth (NB) and a medium mimicking growth conditions in the plant (XAM1). This allowed the identification of 55 secreted proteins, of which 37 were secreted by both strains when cultured in XAM1. In this secreted protein repertoire, the following stand out: Virk, Polyphosphate-selective porin, Cellulase, Endoglucanase, Histone-like protein, Ribosomal proteins, five hypothetical proteins expressed only in the wild type strain, Lytic murein transglycosylase, Lipoprotein, Leucyl-tRNA synthetase, Co-chaperonin, Toluene tolerance, C-type cytochrome biogenesis membrane protein, Aminopeptidase and two hypothetical proteins expressed only in the ΔhrpB4 mutant. Furthermore, Peptidoglycan-associated outer membrane protein, Regulator of pathogenicity factor, Outer membrane proteins, Endopolygalacturonase, Chorismate mutase, Peptidyl-prolyl cis-trans isomerase and seven hypothetical proteins were detected in both strains, suggesting that there was no relationship with the secretion mediated by the type III secretory system, which is not functional in the mutant strain. Also worth mentioning is the Elongation factor Tu (EF-Tu), expressed only the wild type strain, and Type IV pilus assembly protein, Flagellin (FliC) and Flagellar hook-associated protein, identified in the wild-type strain secretome when grown only in NB. Noteworthy, that FliC, EF-Tu are classically characterized as PAMPs (Pathogen-associated molecular patterns), responsible for a PAMP-triggered immunity response. Therefore, our results highlight proteins potentially involved with the virulence. Overall, we conclude that the use of secretome data is a valuable approach that may bring more knowledge of the biology of this important plant pathogen, which ultimately can lead to the establishment of new strategies to combat citrus canker.

A TALE of transposition: Tn3-like transposons play a major role in the spread of pathogenicity determinants of Xanthomonas citri and other xanthomonads.

UNLABELLED: Members of the genus Xanthomonas are among the most important phytopathogens. A key feature of Xanthomonas pathogenesis is the translocation of type III secretion system (T3SS) effector proteins (T3SEs) into the plant target cells via a T3SS. Several T3SEs and a murein lytic transglycosylase gene (mlt, required for citrus canker symptoms) are found associated with three transposition-related genes in Xanthomonas citri plasmid pXAC64. These are flanked by short inverted repeats (IRs). The region was identified as a transposon, TnXax1, with typical Tn3 family features, including a transposase and two recombination genes. Two 14-bp palindromic sequences within a 193-bp potential resolution site occur between the recombination genes. Additional derivatives carrying different T3SEs and other passenger genes occur in different Xanthomonas species. The T3SEs include transcription activator-like effectors (TALEs). Certain TALEs are flanked by the same IRs as found in TnXax1 to form mobile insertion cassettes (MICs), suggesting that they may be transmitted horizontally. A significant number of MICs carrying other passenger genes (including a number of TALE genes) were also identified, flanked by the same TnXax1 IRs and delimited by 5-bp target site duplications. We conclude that a large fraction of T3SEs, including individual TALEs and potential pathogenicity determinants, have spread by transposition and that TnXax1, which exhibits all of the essential characteristics of a functional transposon, may be involved in driving MIC transposition. We also propose that TALE genes may diversify by fork slippage during the replicative Tn3 family transposition. These mechanisms may play a crucial role in the emergence of Xanthomonas pathogenicity. IMPORTANCE: Xanthomonas genomes carry many insertion sequences (IS) and transposons, which play an important role in their evolution and architecture. This study reveals a key relationship between transposons and pathogenicity determinants in Xanthomonas. We propose that several transposition events mediated by a Tn3-like element carrying different sets of passenger genes, such as different type III secretion system effectors (including transcription activation-like effectors [TALEs]), were determinant in the evolution and emergence of Xanthomonas pathogenicity. TALE genes are DNA-binding effectors that modulate plant transcription. We also present a model for generating TALE gene diversity based on fork slippage associated with the replicative transposition mechanism of Tn3-like transposons. This may provide a mechanism for niche adaptation, specialization, host-switching, and other lifestyle changes. These results will also certainly lead to novel insights into the evolution and emergence of the various diseases caused by different Xanthomonas species and pathovars.

Comparative proteomic analysis reveals that T3SS, Tfp, and xanthan gum are key factors in initial stages of Citrus sinensis infection by Xanthomonas citri subsp. citri.

The bacteria Xanthomonas citri subsp. citri (Xac) is the causal agent of citrus canker. The disease symptoms are characterized by localized host cell hyperplasia followed by tissue necrosis at the infected area. An arsenal of bacterial pathogenicity- and virulence-related proteins is expressed to ensure a successful infection process. At the post-genomic stage of Xac, we used a proteomic approach to analyze the proteins that are displayed differentially over time when the pathogen attacks the host plant. Protein extracts were prepared from infectious Xac grown in inducing medium (XAM1) for 24 h or from host citrus plants for 3 or 5 days after infection, detached times to evaluate the adaptation and virulence of the pathogen. The protein extracts were proteolyzed, and the peptides derived from tryptic digestion were investigated using liquid chromatography and tandem mass spectrometry. Changes in the protein expression profile were compared with the Xac genome and the proteome recently described under non-infectious conditions. An analysis of the proteome of Xac under infectious conditions revealed proteins directly involved in virulence such as the type III secretion system (T3SS) and effector proteins (T3SS-e), the type IV pilus (Tfp), and xanthan gum biosynthesis. Moreover, four new mutants related to proteins detected in the proteome and with different functions exhibited reduced virulence relative to the wild-type proteins. The results of the proteome analysis of infectious Xac define the processes of adaptation to the host and demonstrate the induction of the virulence factors of Xac involved in plant-pathogen interactions.

High-throughput genomic sequencing of cassava bacterial blight strains identifies conserved effectors to target for durable resistance.

Cassava bacterial blight (CBB), incited by Xanthomonas axonopodis pv. manihotis (Xam), is the most important bacterial disease of cassava, a staple food source for millions of people in developing countries. Here we present a widely applicable strategy for elucidating the virulence components of a pathogen population. We report Illumina-based draft genomes for 65 Xam strains and deduce the phylogenetic relatedness of Xam across the areas where cassava is grown. Using an extensive database of effector proteins from animal and plant pathogens, we identify the effector repertoire for each sequenced strain and use a comparative sequence analysis to deduce the least polymorphic of the conserved effectors. These highly conserved effectors have been maintained over 11 countries, three continents, and 70 y of evolution and as such represent ideal targets for developing resistance strategies.

Proteome of the phytopathogen Xanthomonas citri subsp. citri: a global expression profile.

BACKGROUND: Citrus canker is a disease caused by Xantomonas citri subsp.citri (Xac), and has emerged as one of the major threats to the worldwide citrus crop because it affects all commercial citrus varieties, decreases the production and quality of the fruits and can spread rapidly in citrus growing areas. In this work, the first proteome of Xac was analyzed using two methodologies, two-dimensional liquid chromatography (2D LC) and tandem mass spectrometry (MS/MS). RESULTS: In order to gain insight into the metabolism of Xac, cells were grown on two different media (NB - Nutrient Broth and TSE - Tryptone Sucrose broth enriched with glutamic acid), and proteins were proteolyzed with trypsin and examined by 2D LC-MS/MS. Approximately 39% of all predicted proteins by annotation of Xac were identified with their component peptides unambiguously assigned to tandem mass spectra. The proteins, about 1,100, were distributed in all annotated functional categories. CONCLUSIONS: This is the first proteomic reference map for the most aggressive strain of Xanthomonas pathogen of all orange varieties. The compilation of metabolic pathways involved with bacterial growth showed that Xac expresses a complete central and intermediary metabolism, replication, transcription and translation machineries and regulation factors, distinct membrane transporters (ABC, MFS and pumps) and receptors (MCP, TonB dependent and metabolites acquisition), two-component systems (sensor and regulatory components) and response regulators. These data corroborate the growth curve in vitro and are the first reports indicating that many of these genome annotated genes are translated into operative in Xac. This proteomic analysis also provided information regarding the influence of culture medium on growth and protein expression of Xac.

Development and validation of a Xanthomonas axonopodis pv. citri DNA microarray platform (XACarray) generated from the shotgun libraries previously used in the sequencing of this bacterial genome.

BACKGROUND: From shotgun libraries used for the genomic sequencing of the phytopathogenic bacterium Xanthomonas axonopodis pv. citri (XAC), clones that were representative of the largest possible number of coding sequences (CDSs) were selected to create a DNA microarray platform on glass slides (XACarray). The creation of the XACarray allowed for the establishment of a tool that is capable of providing data for the analysis of global genome expression in this organism. FINDINGS: The inserts from the selected clones were amplified by PCR with the universal oligonucleotide primers M13R and M13F. The obtained products were purified and fixed in duplicate on glass slides specific for use in DNA microarrays. The number of spots on the microarray totaled 6,144 and included 768 positive controls and 624 negative controls per slide. Validation of the platform was performed through hybridization of total DNA probes from XAC labeled with different fluorophores, Cy3 and Cy5. In this validation assay, 86% of all PCR products fixed on the glass slides were confirmed to present a hybridization signal greater than twice the standard deviation of the deviation of the global median signal-to-noise ration. CONCLUSIONS: Our validation of the XACArray platform using DNA-DNA hybridization revealed that it can be used to evaluate the expression of 2,365 individual CDSs from all major functional categories, which corresponds to 52.7% of the annotated CDSs of the XAC genome. As a proof of concept, we used this platform in a previously work to verify the absence of genomic regions that could not be detected by sequencing in related strains of Xanthomonas.