Longitudinal patterns of companion animals in families with children during the COVID-19 pandemic: Findings from the Adolescent Brain Cognitive Development (ABCD) Study®.

Pet acquisition purportedly increased during the COVID-19 pandemic with individuals acquiring pets during periods of social isolation. Families with children experienced unique challenges during the COVID-19 pandemic, balancing childcare, remote schooling, and other needs and therefore patterns of pet acquisition and loss may differ from the broader population. The goal of this study was to understand patterns of pet ownership within families with adolescents during the pandemic to help identify areas for improved support and programmatic recommendations. Using self-reported survey data from a sample of 7,590 American adolescents from the Adolescent Brain Cognitive Development (ABCD) Study® COVID Survey, we found no evidence for large-scale changes in pet acquisition or relinquishment during the first year of the pandemic for families with adolescents in the U.S. Future research should explore the effects of pet acquisition and pet loss on families with adolescents and what resources are needed to support pet ownership during stressors such as the COVID-19 pandemic.

Longitudinal Associations Between Pet Relationship Quality and Socio-Emotional Functioning in Early Adolescence.

Adolescence is a key developmental period for socio-emotional skills, and companion animal relationships may be one potential source of emotional support and resilience during this time. This study used longitudinal data from 940 pet-owning adolescents, collected over four time points, from youth in the Northeastern United States. We assessed whether pet relationship quality (indexed by relationship satisfaction, companionship, and emotional disclosure) predicted trajectories of loneliness, social anxiety, and depression. Results indicated that high satisfaction with a pet relationship was associated with more favorable trajectories, but companionship (i.e., regarding frequency of interacting with the pet) was not related significantly to socio-emotional functioning. High levels of disclosure to a pet were linked with less favorable trajectories for loneliness and depression, but not related to social anxiety. These results suggest that a pet relationship can, in some cases, be associated positively with socio-emotional development, but that there is significant complexity in these associations. Families, educators, and practitioners should take a nuanced approach to understanding individual adolescent-pet relationships as a contextual asset for specific youth.

Companion animals and the relationship between peer victimization and emotion regulation in youth.

Peer victimization can negatively impact emotion regulation in youth and is associated with harmful mental health outcomes. One protective factor against the impacts of peer victimization is a strong attachment to family and positive peer relationships. Given that pets are commonly seen as family members and that youth report turning to their pet for emotional comfort, companion animals could provide an avenue of support for youth experiencing victimization. A geographically diverse sample of 5725 adolescents in the United States from the Adolescent Brain Cognitive Development (ABCD) Study® was used to explore whether the relationship between peer victimization and emotion regulation was moderated by whether a pet lives in the home. Having a pet in the home did not moderate the relationship between peer victimization and emotion regulation; however, mean-level differences were present across types of household pet (i.e., youth with no pets, youth with at least one dog, and youth with non-dog pets). Participants who did not live with a companion animal showed higher levels of both maladaptive emotion regulation (expressive suppression) and adaptive emotion regulation (cognitive reappraisal), suggesting that having a pet might lower overall emotion regulation pathways regardless of adaptive directionality. Relational victimization was a significant predictor of expressive suppression regardless of whether there was a pet in the home, although overt victimization was not a predictor of either kind of emotion regulation. This research demonstrates the complex nature of human-animal relationships and suggests more research is needed to understand the nuanced relationship between pets, peer victimization, and emotion regulation.

Companion animals and profiles of peer social behavior in adolescence.

INTRODUCTION: Relationships with companion animals have been associated with higher levels of prosocial behavior and lower levels of socioemotional difficulties for children and adolescents. Companion animals may be supportive of developing prosocial behavior in youth through practice with positive social interactions and the development of empathy and reciprocity skills. The goal of this study was to use a person-centered approach to investigate if living with a pet (including pet species) is associated with profiles of adolescent peer social behaviors (i.e., prosocial, aggressive), and size of their peer network. METHODS: This study used data from the Adolescent Brain Cognitive Development (ABCD) Study®, a large, nationally representative data set of American adolescents. RESULTS: In a cross-sectional sample of 5218 adolescents, we found that youth clustered into four different distinct profiles of peer social behavior. Female youth living with dogs were less likely to be in the High Aggression profile as compared to youth without pets or youth with other types of pets. However, having a pet was not associated with whether youth were in the profiles characterized by prosocial behaviors or size of peer network. CONCLUSIONS: Overall, future research should explore how gender intersects with companion animal interactions-both in terms of frequency of interactions as well as relationship quality/emotional attachment-as well as examine these relationships over time to assess causality.

Feasibility of using ecological momentary assessment to measure the effects of interactions with pet dogs on psychophysiological reactivity in adolescents with social anxiety.

Adolescence is a key developmental period for the onset of social anxiety, as it is a time of social transitions and stressors. Therefore, it is important to identify protective factors within the environment that can prevent and/or reduce the effects of social anxiety in addition to existing evidence-based treatments. The presence of a supportive pet dog may be one way of reducing the effects of acute social stressors for youth, but these effects have not been tested robustly in real-world settings. This study aimed to assess the feasibility of using ecological momentary assessment (EMA) to assess physiological responses to pet interactions in real-life scenarios among adolescents with social anxiety (n = 37). Results indicated that this protocol was perceived as feasible by youth participants and allowed for integration across different data streams. Participant use of a wearable sensor to collect electrodermal activity was generally successful, with an average of 12 h of data collected per participant. However, the use of a timestamp button on the sensor was not an effective strategy for data collection. These findings suggest that EMA using self-report activity diary data combined with continuous psychophysiological measurement using wearable sensors is generally a feasible person-centered approach for measuring adolescent-dog interactions in a way that maintains ecological validity.

Associations between Pet Care Responsibility, Companion Animal Interactions, and Family Relationships during COVID-19.

For families with children during the COVID-19 pandemic, it is crucial to explore how both youth and parents view their roles with regard to the shared caretaking of pets. While most human-animal interaction studies examine adult or early childhood samples, our focus was on adolescent development. We present findings from a U.S. based mixed-method study of adolescent surveys and parent interviews regarding pet care responsibility. As part of an ongoing longitudinal study, we analyzed survey data from 567 pet-owning adolescents and a subset of 356 dog owning adolescents aged 10-17 as well as 31 in-depth interviews with parents of adolescents from the same study. Higher reported pet caretaking responsibilities was significantly associated with a preference for spending time with pets when stressed and improved family relationships during the COVID-19 pandemic for both pet owners and dog owners. For dog owners only, increased levels of responsibility for the pet was significantly associated with a higher likelihood of identifying as a pet owner. Qualitative findings showcase the range of parental expectations and adolescent initiative around pet caretaking. Our study highlights the continued importance of pet companionship during the adolescent years as they develop their identities as responsible pet owners.

Companion Animals and Adolescent Stress and Adaptive Coping During the COVID-19 Pandemic.

The COVID-19 pandemic has resulted in significant social disruptions for youth caused by lockdowns, school closures, and a lack of in-person social interactions. Companion animals are prevalent in US households and may provide a source of emotional support and motivation for youth to engage in adaptive coping behaviors during social challenges. The goals of this study were to assess if dog owners, non-dog pet owners, and non-pet owners differed in stress levels, positive affect, and use of adaptive coping strategies such as increased time outdoors, regular walking, and healthy behaviors. This study used data collected during the COVID-19 pandemic from the Adolescent Brain Cognitive DevelopmentSM (ABCD) Study, a large, nationally representative dataset of American youth. In a cross-sectional sample of 6,069 adolescents, there were significant, but small, relationships between owning a non-dog pet and lower levels of positive affect, and both dog owners and non-dog pet owners reported higher perceived stress compared with non-pet owners. Dog ownership was associated with higher odds of using healthy coping strategies compared with non-pet owners, but this relationship was not significant when controlling for demographic variables. Dog owners reported higher odds of having a walking routine and spending time outdoors compared with non-pet owners. Overall, the results suggest no buffering effect of pet ownership on youth mental wellbeing, but dog ownership is associated with some healthy coping behaviors linked to walking.

From Regulating Emotions to Less Lonely Screen Time: Parents' Qualitative Perspectives of the Benefits and Challenges of Adolescent Pet Companionship.

Adolescence is a prime developmental period to explore human-pet relationships, particularly given that teens are often relying less on their families, and more on other attachment figures such as peers and pets. However, most research on pet companionship is conducted with adults and young children. Moreover, lived experiences around having pets in households with adolescents are underexplored, particularly from parents' perspectives. This qualitative interview study of 31 parents/guardians in the Northeast U.S. explored perceptions of the benefits and challenges of having pets for their adolescent's well-being as well as how adolescents affected their pet's well-being. Our three main themes for perceived benefits of pets included social (e.g., reducing anxiety), physical (e.g., screen time companionship), and emotional (e.g., regulation of difficult emotions such as anger, loneliness). Challenges to adolescent well-being included such social topics as family tension around unevenly shared responsibilities, physical themes such as problematic animal behaviors, and emotional themes related to grieving the passing of pets. We offer a developmental systems approach to understanding pets within adolescent families, noting future directions for developing family interventions to improve pet-adolescent interactions given the demands of child and pet upbringing during adolescence.

Financial fragility and demographic factors predict pet owners' perceptions of access to veterinary care in the United States.

OBJECTIVE: Access to veterinary care is critical for pet, human, and community health. However, inequities in how easily pet owners can access veterinary care may exacerbate health disparities in vulnerable populations. This research analyzed pet owners' perceptions of access to veterinary care in order to understand how demographic characteristics and financial fragility predict perceived access to veterinary services. SAMPLE: This study utilized survey data (n = 750) from a larger cross-sectional survey of adults in the US conducted by the Tufts University Equity Research Group. PROCEDURES: Survey data were collected in May and June of 2020 from a nationally representative group of pet owners via an online panel. Descriptive statistics, ANOVAs, and a sequential linear regression model were conducted in order to predict perceived access to veterinary care. RESULTS: Results of a sequential linear regression model indicated that race or ethnicity, education, and financial fragility significantly predicted perceived ease of access to veterinary care (F[7,617] = 19.80; P < .001). Additionally, financial fragility was prevalent among most pet owners of almost all income brackets, highlighting the need for more research into the cost burden of veterinary care. CLINICAL RELEVANCE: Future studies should focus on diverse sampling strategies that capture the experiences of minority pet owners in order to further understand issues of access in veterinary medicine.

Family Dog Ownership and Youth Physical Activity Levels: A Scoping Review.

ABSTRACT: Higher youth physical activity (PA) is associated with favorable health outcomes. The PA Guidelines for Americans recommend school-aged children complete at least 60 minutes of daily PA. Only one in three children meet these guidelines. Dog walking and play are potential strategies to increase youth PA. This scoping review summarizes the existing literature on familial dog ownership and youth PA levels and identifies gaps in the literature to inform future studies. Of nine studies that compared PA levels among youth with and without dogs, 77.8% reported a positive association between dog ownership and PA. The majority of studies investigating dog ownership and youth PA are cross-sectional and suggest dog ownership is associated with increased youth PA. Longitudinal studies are needed to determine whether the relationship is causal. Interventions to increase dog-facilitated PA in youth also are needed. Future studies should examine the dog ownership-PA relationship in low-income and minority youth.

Demographic and contextual factors as moderators of the relationship between pet ownership and health.

OBJECTIVE: Companion animals are an important feature of the family system, and human-animal interaction is increasingly being recognized as an important social determinant of health. However, there is a need for more nuanced assessment of not only who owns pets, but how pet ownership is related to various health outcomes, and which sociodemographic and contextual factors moderate these associations. DESIGN: Secondary analysis of cross-sectional data collected from an online, probability-based panel to generate a nationally representative sample of adults in the United States (n = 1267). Data were analyzed using hierarchical and logistic regression models. RESULTS: Results suggested that pet owners are systematically different from non-pet owners on a number of key demographic and contextual characteristics, and these differences vary somewhat when looking at dog owners and cat owners. When controlling for individual and family-level covariates, pet ownership was not associated with overall health status or Body Mass Index, but dog ownership was associated with higher levels of physical activity. Pet ownership was associated with higher odds of having an anxiety disorder with gender moderating this relationship, but this association was not present for dog or cat owners, suggesting this relationship is limited to other types of pets. Higher odds of depression were associated with pet ownership (for both dog and cat owners), with employment status significantly moderating the relationship between dog ownership status and depression. CONCLUSIONS: These findings suggest that pet ownership is a complex and context specific phenomenon. Future research should carefully consider and control for sociodemographic predictors and use measurement and analysis approaches sensitive to the variations in human-animal relationships to fully understand how pets contribute to individual and family health and well-being.

Companion Animal Relationships and Adolescent Loneliness during COVID-19.

The pandemic associated with the emergence of the novel coronavirus (COVID-19) is an unprecedented historical event with the potential to significantly impact adolescent loneliness. This study aimed to explore the role of companion animals and attachment to pets in the context of the pandemic. We used longitudinal quantitative survey data collected prior to and during the pandemic to assess the role of pets in predicting adolescent loneliness. Pet ownership was not a significant predictor of loneliness before the pandemic, but did predict higher levels of loneliness during COVID-19 as well as higher increases in loneliness from before to during the pandemic. Dog ownership predicted lower levels of loneliness prior to, but not during the pandemic, and dog owners were significantly more attached to their pets than non-dog pet owners. Adolescents with pets reported spending more time with their pets during the pandemic, and frequently reported pet interactions as a strategy for coping with stress. Overall, the results from this study did not support the presence of a buffering effect of companion animals on loneliness for adolescents and indicate complexity in the relationships between pet ownership, attachment, loneliness, and coping with stress. These results suggest a need for additional research further assessing how features of the relationship such as species and relationship quality might contribute to adolescent mental health outcomes.

Null effects of therapy dog interaction on adolescent anxiety during a laboratory-based social evaluative stressor.

BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVES: Animal-assisted interventions (AAIs) are increasingly popular as treatments to reduce anxiety. However, there is little empirical evidence testing the mechanisms of action in AAIs, especially among adolescents. We examined whether two possible mechanisms, social interaction and/or physical contact with a therapy dog, might reduce anxiety during a social stressor. DESIGN AND METHODS: To test these mechanisms, we randomly assigned 75 adolescents with low, middle, and high levels of social anxiety to complete a laboratory-based social evaluative stressor in one of three conditions: social interaction with a therapy dog (no physical interaction), social plus physical interaction with a therapy dog, or no interaction with a therapy dog. We measured self-reported anxiety and autonomic reactivity during the social stressor to assess the effects of contact with a therapy dog. RESULTS AND CONCLUSIONS: We found no evidence that the presence of a real dog, with or without the opportunity to touch it, reduced anxiety or autonomic reactivity or improved cognitive performance relative to the presence of a stuffed dog in the control condition, regardless of levels of preexisting social anxiety.Trial registration: ClinicalTrials.gov identifier: NCT03249116.

Human-animal-environment interactions as a context for youth social-emotional health and wellbeing: Practitioners' perspectives on processes of change, implementation, and challenges.

BACKGROUND: Human-animal-environment interactions (HAEIs) are increasingly used in interventions for youth with psychosocial challenges, yet research is limited. Staff from an exemplary program that use HAEIs have unique perspectives on the processes involved in youth outcomes. The aim of this study was to elucidate processes of change that may underly HAEIs and key implementation considerations. MATERIALS AND METHODS: A phenomenological approach was used to ascertain HAEI staff perspectives of how they have seen HAEIs impact youth. Semi-structured interviews were completed with 24 staff at a mental health treatment program that utilizes HAEIs. RESULTS: Six themes were identified, including views that HAEIs had challenges, afforded youth with valuable opportunities, improved mood, facilitated relationships and self-regulation, and strengthened self-conception. CONCLUSION: Findings will inform program development; and future research to assess mediating variables and best practices in implementation of HAEIs.

Aging Equines: Understanding the Experience of Caring for a Geriatric Horse with a Chronic Condition.

This study evaluated the experience of 1,448 people in the United States who currently care for or had previously cared for a geriatric horse and how that experience was qualified by the presence or absence of a chronic condition in the horse. An anonymous, online questionnaire was distributed to a cross-country sample to investigate the burden of caregivers from the perspective of owners of geriatric horses. Traumatic events and veterinary care decisions were also explored. Findings from the study supported the hypothesis that owners of geriatric horses with a chronic condition experienced higher levels of physical and emotional care burden, regardless of the age of the geriatric horse. Attachment levels reported by participants were high, regardless of the health status of the horse. This exploratory study provides the equine practitioner a greater understanding of the care burden experienced by owners of geriatric horses, particularly of owners of geriatric horses with a chronic condition, who rely on their veterinarian to guide their management and health care decisions. Veterinarians can help prepare and support clients as they navigate the complexities of caring for an older horse with a chronic condition.

Perceptions of Maternal Discrimination and Pregnancy/Postpartum Experiences Among Veterinary Mothers.

Objective: To describe perceptions of maternal discrimination and to begin to understand patterns around timing of starting families, infertility, and post-partum depression among veterinary mothers. Design: Cross-sectional questionnaire with closed and open-ended questions posted to a social media platform "Moms with a DVM." Sample: 1,082 veterinary mothers in the United States. Procedures: An online questionnaire was administered regarding perceived discrimination, inequities in the work-place due to pregnant or maternal status, desired accommodations, timing of pregnancy(ies), fertility issues, and postpartum experiences. Results: At least one form of perceived discrimination was reported by 819 (75.7%) respondents (M = 2.6, SD = 2.1, range 0-10). Specifically, 789 (72.9%) reported maternal discrimination. Over half of the sample (n = 632, 58.4%) reported at least one instance of perceived inequity in the workplace due to status as a mother (M = 1.23, SD = 1.4, range 0-5). A majority (906, 83.7%) reported that their career had "definitely" or "maybe" affected the timing of their children. One hundred eighty-nine respondents (17.5%) experienced at least one miscarriage, and 192 (17.6%) used fertility treatment due to difficulty conceiving. Postpartum depression was diagnosed in 181 respondents (16.7%), and 353 (32.6%) reported symptoms consistent with postpartum depression but did not seek medical care. Of 953 participants who needed accommodations for breastfeeding and/or pumping while at work, 130 (13.6%) reported excellent accommodations, 454 (47.6%) adequate, 258 (27.1%) inadequate, and 111 (11.6%) had no accommodations provided. Conclusions and Clinical Relevance: Participants reported experiences of perceived maternal discrimination, as well as inequities and lack of support services due to status as a mother. These results highlight the need for attention and changes to ensure veterinarians have supportive and sustainable career options.

Validation of an abbreviated instrument to assess veterinary client caregiver burden.

BACKGROUND: Caregiver burden is present in many clients managing illness in a companion animal, but current assessment tools are time-consuming and lack normative reference values. OBJECTIVES: Statistical reduction of items in a measure of caregiver burden to create an abbreviated version, validation of the abbreviated version, and calculation of reference values. ANIMALS: None. METHODS: This study was conducted using observational methods. Owners of an ill cat or dog were recruited through social media (n = 429). Veterinary clients with an ill (n = 459) or healthy (n = 961) cat or dog were recruited through a general veterinary and an academic hospital with multiple specialties. The study was conducted in 3 stages: (a) reduction of the Zarit Burden Interview (ZBI) adapted for use in pets via factor and item analyses, (b) psychometric validation of the abbreviated instrument, and (c) standardization of the abbreviated (7 items) and full (18 items) measures. RESULTS: A 7-item measure showed high correlations with the full measure (r = 0.88-0.93) and good internal consistency (α = .71-.75) across samples of veterinary clients with an ill cat or dog. This abbreviated measure correlated significantly (P < .001) and positively with stress (r = 0.40-0.75) and negatively with quality of life (r = -0.32 to -0.56). Reference values derived from clients with a healthy companion animal suggest "normal" burden ranges of 0 to 17 on the full measure and 0 to 8 on the abbreviated version. CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL IMPORTANCE: For situations precluding full assessment of client caregiver burden, this brief 7-item version can be used with good internal consistency and validity. Reference values can help determine if a client's caregiver burden is increased.

Current Policies and Support Services for Pregnant and Parenting Veterinary Medical Students and House Officers at United States Veterinary Medical Training Institutions.

Wellness and work-life balance are prominent concerns in the veterinary profession and data suggest that personal relationship-building with peers and family assist veterinary trainees and veterinarians with wellness. The demographics of veterinary medical trainees (students, interns, and residents) have shifted to a female-dominated cohort and veterinary training overlaps with peak reproductive age for the majority of trainees. Despite a robust body of literature in the human medical profession surrounding pregnancy, parenting, and family planning (PPFP) among human medical students, interns, and residents, no comparable data exist within the United States veterinary medical community. This study reviewed policies and support services in place to support PPFP at accredited United States veterinary medical training institutions through the use of an online administrator survey and the review of handbooks and relevant written material. Results from this study highlight a lack of consistency across veterinary medical training institutions for policy and support services for PPFP for trainees, especially related to lactation support and parental leave. Our data can help facilitate the development of standards or best practices for policies and support services that support PPFP among veterinary medical trainees, and opens the dialogue to consider the unique needs of our shifted trainee demographics.

Perceptions of support and policies regarding pregnancy, parenting, and family planning during veterinary training at United States veterinary medical training institutions.

OBJECTIVE To gather information about issues associated with pregnancy, lactation, and parenting for US veterinary students and house officers (trainees) and their perception of pregnancy and parenting support services available at US veterinary training institutions. DESIGN Cross-sectional mixed-method survey. SAMPLE 2,088 veterinary students and 312 house officers from 27 US veterinary training institutions. PROCEDURES An email with a link to an online survey was sent to the associate dean for academic affairs at each of the 30 AVMA-accredited US veterinary training institutions with a request that it be forwarded to all veterinary students and house officers (interns and residents). RESULTS Among the 2,400 respondents, 185 (7.7%) reported that they were a parent, were pregnant, or had a significant other who was pregnant. Several significant differences in attitudes and perceptions of pregnancy and parenting support services provided by veterinary training institutions were identified between males and females, veterinary students and house officers, and respondents who were and were not parents. CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL RELEVANCE Results provided crucial information about an important facet of well-being for veterinary trainees and suggested that veterinary students and house officers face substantial challenges in becoming parents during their training programs and that perceptions of those challenges differ between males and females.