Algae communication, conspecific and interspecific: the concepts of phycosphere and algal-bacteria consortia in a photobioreactor (PBR).

Microalgae in the wild often form consortia with other species promoting their own health and resource foraging opportunities. The recent application of microalgae cultivation and deployment in commercial photobioreactors (PBR) so far has focussed on single species of algae, resulting in multi-species consortia being largely unexplored. Reviewing the current status of PBR ecological habitat, this article argues in favor of further investigation into algal communication with conspecifics and interspecifics, including other strains of microalgae and bacteria. These mutualistic species form the 'phycosphere': the microenvironment surrounding microalgal cells, potentiating the production of certain metabolites through biochemical interaction with cohabitating microorganisms. A better understanding of the phycosphere could lead to novel PBR configurations, capable of incorporating algal-microbial consortia, potentially proving more effective than single-species algal systems.

The electrical network of maize root apex is gravity dependent.

Investigations carried out on maize roots under microgravity and hypergravity revealed that gravity conditions have strong effects on the network of plant electrical activity. Both the duration of action potentials (APs) and their propagation velocities were significantly affected by gravity. Similarly to what was reported for animals, increased gravity forces speed-up APs and enhance synchronized electrical events also in plants. The root apex transition zone emerges as the most active, as well as the most sensitive, root region in this respect.

Oxidative stress and NO signalling in the root apex as an early response to changes in gravity conditions.

Oxygen influx showed an asymmetry in the transition zone of the root apex when roots were placed horizontally on ground. The influx increased only in the upper side, while no changes were detected in the division and in the elongation zone. Nitric oxide (NO) was also monitored after gravistimulation, revealing a sudden burst only in the transition zone. In order to confirm these results in real microgravity conditions, experiments have been set up by using parabolic flights and drop tower. The production of reactive oxygen species (ROS) was also monitored. Oxygen, NO, and ROS were continuously monitored during normal and hyper- and microgravity conditions in roots of maize seedlings. A distinct signal in oxygen and NO fluxes was clearly detected only in the apex zone during microgravity, with no significant changes in normal and in hypergravity conditions. The same results were obtained by ROS measurement. The detrimental effect of D'orenone, disrupting the polarised auxin transport, on the onset of the oxygen peaks during the microgravity period was also evaluated. Results indicates an active role of NO and ROS as messengers during the gravitropic response, with probable implications in the auxin redistribution.

Gravity affects the closure of the traps in Dionaea muscipula.

Venus flytrap (Dionaea muscipula Ellis) is a carnivorous plant known for its ability to capture insects thanks to the fast snapping of its traps. This fast movement has been long studied and it is triggered by the mechanical stimulation of hairs, located in the middle of the leaves. Here we present detailed experiments on the effect of microgravity on trap closure recorded for the first time during a parabolic flight campaign. Our results suggest that gravity has an impact on trap responsiveness and on the kinetics of trap closure. The possible role of the alterations of membrane permeability induced by microgravity on trap movement is discussed. Finally we show how the Venus flytrap could be an easy and effective model plant to perform studies on ion channels and aquaporin activities, as well as on electrical activity in vivo on board of parabolic flights and large diameter centrifuges.

Local root apex hypoxia induces NO-mediated hypoxic acclimation of the entire root.

Roots are very sensitive to hypoxia and adapt effectively to a reduced availability of oxygen in the soil. However, the site of the root where oxygen availability is sensed and how roots acclimate to hypoxia remain unclear. In this study, we found that the root apex transition zone plays central roles in both sensing and adapting to root hypoxia. The exposure of cells of the root apex to hypoxia is sufficient to achieve hypoxic acclimation of the entire root; particularly relevant in this respect is that, of the entire root apex, the transition zone cells show the highest demand for oxygen and also emit the largest amount of nitric oxide (NO). Local root apex-specific oxygen deprivation dramatically inhibits the oxygen influx peak in the transition zone and simultaneously stimulates a local increase in NO emission. The hypoxia-induced efflux of NO is strictly associated with the transition zone and is essential for hypoxic acclimation of the entire root.

Effect of hypoxic acclimation on anoxia tolerance in Vitis roots: response of metabolic activity and K+ fluxes.

The effect of a hypoxic pre-treatment (HPT) on improving tolerance to prolonged anoxia conditions in two contrasting Vitis species (V. riparia, anoxia tolerant; V. rupestris, anoxia sensitive) was evaluated. The energy economy of root cells was studied by measuring heat production, the activity of pyruvate decarboxylase (PDC) and alcohol dehdrogenase (ADH), ethanol and ATP production, and K(+) fluxes. The results showed that HPT is an effective tool in order to maintain a sustainable metabolic performance in both the species under anoxia conditions, especially in sensitive species such as V. rupestris. Our results showed that the improved tolerance was mainly driven by: (i) an enhanced activity of key enzymes in alcohol fermentation (ADC and PDC); (ii) the capability to maintain a higher level of respiration, evidenced by a lesser decrease in heat development and ATP production; and (iii) the maintenance of a better ion homeostasis (highlighted by measurement of K(+) fluxes) and K(+) channel functionality.

The plant as a biomechatronic system.

Our vision of plants is changing dramatically: from insensitive and static objects to complex living beings able to sense the environment and to use the information collected to adapt their behaviour. At all times humans imitate ideas and concepts from nature to resolve technological problems. Solutions coming from plants have the potential to face challenges and difficulties of modern engineering design. Characteristic concepts of the plant world such as reiteration, modularity and swarm behaviour could be of great help resolving technological problems. On the other hand a biorobotic approach would facilitate the resolution of many biological problems. In this paper, the concept of a plant-inspired robot is proposed for the investigation of both biological and technological issues.

Phospholipase dzeta2 drives vesicular secretion of auxin for its polar cell-cell transport in the transition zone of the root apex.

Auxin (IAA) is versatile signalling molecule of plants, currently classified as plant hormone. But there are data suggesting that auxin is acting also as plant-specific morphogen, electric-responses inducing transmitter, and as general signalling molecule used for plant-bacteria communication. Our previous data revealed that auxin is associated with secretory endosomes and also highly enriched within cell walls of cells active in transcellular auxin transport. Our present data, based on in vivo non-invasive auxin flux recordings, reveal that auxin is secreted out of synaptic-like domains specialized for efflux of auxin in root apex cells highly active in polar cell-cell transport of auxin. We obtained both genetic and pharmacological evidence that phospholipase Dzeta2 drives vesicular secretion of auxin for its polar transcellular transport in the transition zone of the root apex. Secretion of auxin via secretory vesicles has far-reaching consequences not only for our understanding of cell-cell auxin transport but also for plant sciences as a whole.