Disparities in Tuberculosis Incidence by Race and Ethnicity Among the U.S.-Born Population in the United States, 2011 to 2021 : An Analysis of National Disease Registry Data.

BACKGROUND: Elevated tuberculosis (TB) incidence rates have recently been reported for racial/ethnic minority populations in the United States. Tracking such disparities is important for assessing progress toward national health equity goals and implementing change. OBJECTIVE: To quantify trends in racial/ethnic disparities in TB incidence among U.S.-born persons. DESIGN: Time-series analysis of national TB registry data for 2011 to 2021. SETTING: United States. PARTICIPANTS: U.S.-born persons stratified by race/ethnicity. MEASUREMENTS: TB incidence rates, incidence rate differences, and incidence rate ratios compared with non-Hispanic White persons; excess TB cases (calculated from incidence rate differences); and the index of disparity. Analyses were stratified by sex and by attribution of TB disease to recent transmission and were adjusted for age, year, and state of residence. RESULTS: In analyses of TB incidence rates for each racial/ethnic population compared with non-Hispanic White persons, incidence rate ratios were as high as 14.2 (95% CI, 13.0 to 15.5) among American Indian or Alaska Native (AI/AN) females. Relative disparities were greater for females, younger persons, and TB attributed to recent transmission. Absolute disparities were greater for males. Excess TB cases in 2011 to 2021 represented 69% (CI, 66% to 71%) and 62% (CI, 60% to 64%) of total cases for females and males, respectively. No evidence was found to indicate that incidence rate ratios decreased over time, and most relative disparity measures showed small, statistically nonsignificant increases. LIMITATION: Analyses assumed complete TB case diagnosis and self-report of race/ethnicity and were not adjusted for medical comorbidities or social determinants of health. CONCLUSION: There are persistent disparities in TB incidence by race/ethnicity. Relative disparities were greater for AI/AN persons, females, and younger persons, and absolute disparities were greater for males. Eliminating these disparities could reduce overall TB incidence by more than 60% among the U.S.-born population. PRIMARY FUNDING SOURCE: Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.

Racial and ethnic disparities in diagnosis and treatment outcomes among US-born people diagnosed with tuberculosis, 2003-19: an analysis of national surveillance data.

BACKGROUND: Persistent racial and ethnic disparities in tuberculosis incidence exist in the USA, however, less is known about disparities along the tuberculosis continuum of care. This study aimed to describe how race and ethnicity are associated with tuberculosis diagnosis and treatment outcomes. METHODS: In this analysis of national surveillance data, we extracted data from the US National Tuberculosis Surveillance System on US-born patients with tuberculosis during 2003-19. To estimate the association between race and ethnicity and tuberculosis diagnosis (diagnosis after death, cavitation, and sputum smear positivity) and treatment outcomes (treatment for more than 12 months, treatment discontinuation, and death during treatment), we fitted log-binomial regression models adjusting for calendar year, sex, age category, and regional division. Race and ethnicity were defined based on US Census Bureau classification as White, Black, Hispanic, Asian, American Indian or Alaska Native, Native Hawaiian or Pacific Islander, and people of other ethnicities. We quantified racial and ethnic disparities as adjusted relative risks (aRRs) using non-Hispanic White people as the reference group. We also calculated the Index of Disparity as a summary measure that quantifies the dispersion in a given outcome across all racial and ethnic groups, relative to the population mean. We estimated time trends in each outcome to evaluate whether disparities were closing or widening. FINDINGS: From 2003 to 2019, there were 72 809 US-born individuals diagnosed with tuberculosis disease of whom 72 369 (35·7% women and 64·3% men) could be included in analyses. We observed an overall higher risk of any adverse outcome (defined as diagnosis after death, treatment discontinuation, or death during treatment) for non-Hispanic Black people (aRR 1·27, 95% CI 1·22-1·32), Hispanic people (1·20, 1·14-1·27), and American Indian or Alaska Native people (1·24, 1·12-1·37), relative to non-Hispanic White people. The Index of Disparity for this summary outcome remained unchanged over the study period. INTERPRETATION: This study, based on national surveillance data, indicates racial and ethnic disparaties among US-born tuberculosis patients along the tuberculosis continuum of care. Initiatives are needed to reduce diagnostic delays and improve treatment outcomes for US-born racially marginalised people in the USA. FUNDING: US Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.

Racial, Ethnic, Sex, and Age Differences in COVID-19 Cases, Hospitalizations, and Deaths Among Incarcerated People and Staff in Correctional Facilities in Six Jurisdictions, United States, March-July 2020.

OBJECTIVES: To examine disparities by sex, age group, and race and ethnicity in COVID-19 confirmed cases, hospitalizations, and deaths among incarcerated people and staff in correctional facilities. METHODS: Six U.S. jurisdictions reported data on COVID-19 confirmed cases, hospitalizations, and deaths stratified by sex, age group, and race and ethnicity for incarcerated people and staff in correctional facilities during March 1- July 31, 2020. We calculated incidence rates and rate ratios (RR) and absolute rate differences (RD) by sex, age group, and race and ethnicity, and made comparisons to the U.S. general population. RESULTS: Compared with the U.S. general population, incarcerated people and staff had higher COVID-19 case incidence (RR = 14.1, 95% CI = 13.9-14.3; RD = 6,692.2, CI = 6,598.8-6,785.5; RR = 6.0, CI = 5.7-6.3; RD = 2523.0, CI = 2368.1-2677.9, respectively); incarcerated people also had higher rates of COVID-19-related deaths (RR = 1.6, CI = 1.4-1.9; RD = 23.6, CI = 14.9-32.2). Rates of COVID-19 cases, hospitalizations, and deaths among incarcerated people and corrections staff differed by sex, age group, and race and ethnicity. The COVID-19 hospitalization (RR = 0.9, CI = 0.8-1.0; RD = -48.0, CI = -79.1- -16.8) and death rates (RR = 0.8, CI = 0.6-1.0; RD = -11.8, CI = -23.5- -0.1) for Black incarcerated people were lower than those for Black people in the general population. COVID-19 case incidence, hospitalizations, and deaths were higher among older incarcerated people, but not among staff. CONCLUSIONS: With a few exceptions, living or working in a correctional setting was associated with higher risk of COVID-19 infection and resulted in worse health outcomes compared with the general population; however, Black incarcerated people fared better than their U.S. general population counterparts.

Sociodemographic and Clinical Characteristics Associated With Recent Incarceration Among People With HIV, United States, 2015-2017.

OBJECTIVES: We examined sociodemographic, clinical, and behavioral factors associated with previous incarceration among people with diagnosed HIV to inform HIV care efforts for this population. METHODS: We used 2015-2017 data from a cross-sectional, nationally representative sample of US adults with diagnosed HIV (N = 11 739). We computed weighted percentages and 95% CIs to compare the characteristics of people with HIV incarcerated in the past 12 months (ie, recently) with people with HIV not recently incarcerated. We used adjusted prevalence ratios (aPRs) with predicted marginal means to examine associations between selected factors and incarceration status. RESULTS: Adults with HIV who were recently incarcerated, when compared with those who were not, were more likely to be aged 18-29 years (prevalence ratio [PR] = 2.51), non-Hispanic Black (PR = 1.39), less educated (

Leading Organizational Change: Improved Leadership Behaviors Among Public Health Leaders After Receiving Multirater Feedback and Coaching.

BACKGROUND: Leading Change is one of five Executive Core Qualifications (ECQs) used in developing leaders in the federal government. Leadership development programs that incorporate multirater feedback and executive coaching are valuable in developing competencies to lead change. METHODS: We examined the extent by which coaching influenced Leading Change competencies and identified effective tools and resources used to enhance the leadership capacity of first- and midlevel leaders at Centers for Disease Control and Prevention's National Center for HIV/AIDS, Viral Hepatitis, Sexually Transmitted Diseases, and Tuberculosis Prevention. Data included qualitative data collected via semi-structured interviews that focused on leadership changes made by leaders in the Coaching and Leadership Initiative (CaLI), a leadership development program for Team Leads and Branch Chiefs. FINDINGS: Ninety-six participants completed leadership coaching; 94 (98%) of whom completed one or more interviews. Of those 94 respondents, 74 (79%) reported improvements in their ability to lead change in 3 of 4 leading change competencies: creativity and innovation, flexibility, and resilience. All respondents indicated tools and resources that were effective in leading change: 49 (52%) participated in instructor-led activities during their CaLI experience; 33 (35%) experiential activities; 94 (100%) developmental relationships, assessment, and feedback; and 25 (27%) self-development. CONCLUSIONS/APPLICATION TO PRACTICE: First- and midlevel leaders in a public health agency benefitted from using leadership coaching in developing competencies to lead organizational change. Leadership development programs might benefit from examining Leading Change competencies and including instructor-led and experiential activities as an additional component of a comprehensive leadership development program.

Changing Leadership Behaviors in a Public Health Agency Through Coaching and Multirater Feedback.

CONTEXT: Public health managers' leadership skills can be improved through multirater feedback and coaching. OBJECTIVE: To explore to what extent participation in a coaching intervention influences leadership behaviors of first- and second-level leaders in a federal public health agency. DESIGN: Team leads and branch chiefs in the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention's (CDC's) National Center for HIV/AIDS, Viral Hepatitis, STD, and TB Prevention (NCHHSTP) were invited to participate in the Coaching and Leadership Initiative (CaLI), which incorporates the US Office of Personnel Management (OPM) Leadership 360 assessment, 6 coaching sessions, and 2 in-depth interviews. SETTING: NCHHSTP is one of 16 CDC national centers, institute, and offices. PARTICIPANTS: Staff serving as team leads or branch chiefs. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: Two in-depth interviews explored CaLI's influence on leadership behaviors regarding the government-wide Leading People executive core qualification. RESULTS: A total of 103 (93%) CaLI participants completed the OPM 360 feedback, 82 (80%) completed leadership coaching; 71 of 82 (87%) completed phase 1 interview, and 46 of 71 (65%) completed phase 2 interview. Eighty unique participants completed 1 or more interviews; all indicated that CaLI helped provide new perspectives, practices, and approaches that led to better communication and relationships, different approaches to conflict resolution, and awareness of individual leadership practices. Of the 71 participants who completed phase 1 evaluation, 66 (93%) said they made changes in developing others, 56 (79%) completed conflict management and team building, and 16 (23%) completed leveraging diversity. Of the 46 participants who completed both phase 1 and phase 2 interviews and among those who made changes post-CaLI, 23 of 26 (88%) sustained those leadership changes in developing others, 21 of 27 (78%) in team building; 24 of 34 (71%) in conflict management; and 5 of 10 (50%) in leveraging diversity. CONCLUSIONS: This study demonstrates the benefits and effectiveness of using multirater feedback and leadership coaching for first- and midlevel public health leaders.

Factors Associated With HIV Testing Among Atlanta's Homeless Youth.

Homeless youth experience increased risk of contracting HIV, making HIV testing imperative in this population. We analyzed factors associated with HIV testing among homeless youth in Atlanta, Georgia using data from the 2015 Atlanta Youth Count and Needs Assessment. The analysis included 693 homeless youth aged 14-25 years, of whom 88.4% reported ever being tested for HIV, and 74.6% reported being tested within the previous year. Prevalence of ever testing for HIV was significantly higher among youth who reported risk factors for HIV (sexually active, transactional sex, or ever having an STI). Higher prevalence of testing within the last year was significantly associated with experiencing physical abuse or transactional sex. However, reporting ≥ 4 sexual partners or not using condoms were not associated with higher testing. Although testing prevalence among homeless youth was high, homeless youth engaging in certain high risk behaviors could benefit from further promotion of HIV testing.

NIH Primary and Secondary Prevention Research in Humans During 2012-2017.

INTRODUCTION: This paper provides the first detailed analysis of the NIH prevention research portfolio for primary and secondary prevention research in humans and related methods research. METHODS: The Office of Disease Prevention developed a taxonomy of 128 topics and applied it to 11,082 projects representing 91.7% of all new projects and 84.1% of all dollars used for new projects awarded using grant and cooperative agreement activity codes that supported research in fiscal years 2012-2017. Projects were coded in 2016-2018 and analyzed in 2018. RESULTS: Only 16.7% of projects and 22.6% of dollars were used for primary and secondary prevention research in humans or related methods research. Most of the leading risk factors for death and disability in the U.S. were selected as an outcome in <5% of the projects. Many more projects included an observational study, or an analysis of existing data, than a randomized intervention. These patterns were consistent over time. CONCLUSIONS: The appropriate level of support for primary and secondary prevention research in humans from NIH will differ by field and stage of research. The estimates reported here may be overestimates, as credit was given for a project even if only a portion of that project addressed prevention research. Given that 74% of the variability in county-level life expectancy across the U.S. is explained by established risk factors, it seems appropriate to devote additional resources to developing and testing interventions to address those risk factors.

A Machine Learning Approach to Identify NIH-Funded Applied Prevention Research.

INTRODUCTION: To fulfill its mission, the NIH Office of Disease Prevention systematically monitors NIH investments in applied prevention research. Specifically, the Office focuses on research in humans involving primary and secondary prevention, and prevention-related methods. Currently, the NIH uses the Research, Condition, and Disease Categorization system to report agency funding in prevention research. However, this system defines prevention research broadly to include primary and secondary prevention, studies on prevention methods, and basic and preclinical studies for prevention. A new methodology was needed to quantify NIH funding in applied prevention research. METHODS: A novel machine learning approach was developed and evaluated for its ability to characterize NIH-funded applied prevention research during fiscal years 2012-2015. The sensitivity, specificity, positive predictive value, accuracy, and F1 score of the machine learning method; the Research, Condition, and Disease Categorization system; and a combined approach were estimated. Analyses were completed during June-August 2017. RESULTS: Because the machine learning method was trained to recognize applied prevention research, it more accurately identified applied prevention grants (F1 = 72.7%) than the Research, Condition, and Disease Categorization system (F1 = 54.4%) and a combined approach (F1 = 63.5%) with p<0.001. CONCLUSIONS: This analysis demonstrated the use of machine learning as an efficient method to classify NIH-funded research grants in disease prevention.

Design and analysis of group-randomized trials in cancer: A review of current practices.

The purpose of this paper is to summarize current practices for the design and analysis of group-randomized trials involving cancer-related risk factors or outcomes and to offer recommendations to improve future trials. We searched for group-randomized trials involving cancer-related risk factors or outcomes that were published or online in peer-reviewed journals in 2011-15. During 2016-17, in Bethesda MD, we reviewed 123 articles from 76 journals to characterize their design and their methods for sample size estimation and data analysis. Only 66 (53.7%) of the articles reported appropriate methods for sample size estimation. Only 63 (51.2%) reported exclusively appropriate methods for analysis. These findings suggest that many investigators do not adequately attend to the methodological challenges inherent in group-randomized trials. These practices can lead to underpowered studies, to an inflated type 1 error rate, and to inferences that mislead readers. Investigators should work with biostatisticians or other methodologists familiar with these issues. Funders and editors should ensure careful methodological review of applications and manuscripts. Reviewers should ensure that studies are properly planned and analyzed. These steps are needed to improve the rigor and reproducibility of group-randomized trials. The Office of Disease Prevention (ODP) at the National Institutes of Health (NIH) has taken several steps to address these issues. ODP offers an online course on the design and analysis of group-randomized trials. ODP is working to increase the number of methodologists who serve on grant review panels. ODP has developed standard language for the Application Guide and the Review Criteria to draw investigators' attention to these issues. Finally, ODP has created a new Research Methods Resources website to help investigators, reviewers, and NIH staff better understand these issues.

An Intervention for Reducing the Sexual Risk of Men Released From Jails.

Incarceration history can affect sexual health behaviors. A randomized controlled trial of a prevention intervention tailored for post-incarcerated men was administered in a reentry setting. Men ≤45 days post release were recruited into a five-session intervention study. Participants ( N = 255) were assessed and tested for three sexually transmitted diseases (STDs) and HIV at baseline and 3 months post-intervention and followed up for 3 more months. The intervention group's STD risks knowledge ( p < .001), partner communication about condoms ( p < .001), and condom application skills ( p < .001) improved. Although fewer men tested positive for an STD at 3 months post-intervention (10% vs. 8%) and no new HIV cases were found, the finding was not significant. A tailored risk reduction intervention for men with incarceration histories can affect sexual risk behaviors.

Association of Employee Attributes and Exceptional Performance Rating at a National Center of the US Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 2011.

CONTEXT: Employee performance evaluation motivates and rewards exceptional individual performance that advances the achievement of organizational goals. The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) and its operating units evaluate employee performance annually and reward exceptional performance with a cash award or quality step increase in pay. A summary performance rating (SPR) of "exceptional" indicated personal achievements in 2011 that were beyond expectations described in the employee's performance plan. OBJECTIVE: To determine whether personal attributes and job setting of civil service employees were associated with an exceptional SPR in National Center for HIV/AIDS, Viral Hepatitis, STD, and TB Prevention (NCHHSTP) in 2011. DESIGN: Data from the CDC 2011 performance management database collected in 2012 were analyzed in 2013 to identify SPR, personal attributes, and job settings of full-time civil service employees. Multivariate logistic regression controlled for confounding and stratified analysis detected effect modifiers of the association between receiving an exceptional SPR in 2011 and gender, race/ethnicity, education, job location, job series, grade level, years in grade, years of federal service, supervisory role, and NCHHSTP division. RESULTS: Among the 1037 employees, exceptional SPR was independently associated with: female gender (adjusted odds ratio: 1.7 [1.3, 2.3]), advanced degrees (doctorate: 1.7 [1.1, 2.5] master's: [1.1, 2.0]), headquarters location (2.8 [1.9, 4.1]), higher pay grade (3.3 [2.4, 4.5]) and years in grade (0-1 years: 1.7 [1.3, 2.4]; 2-4 years: 1.5 [1.1, 2.0]), division level (Division A: 5.0 [2.5, 9.9]; Division B: 5.5 [3.5, 8.8]), and supervisory status (at a lower-pay grade) (odds ratio: 3.7 [1.1, 11.3]). CONCLUSIONS: Exceptional SPR is independently associated with personal employee attributes and job settings that are not modifiable by interventions designed to improve employee performance based on accomplishments.

Perinatal HIV Prevention Outcomes in U.S.-Born Versus Foreign-Born Blacks, PSD Cohort, 1995-2004.

We examined differences in HIV-infected U.S.-born and foreign-born black mothers who delivered perinatally HIV-exposed and -infected children during 1995-2004 in the Pediatric Spectrum of HIV Disease Project, a longitudinal cohort study. Prevalence ratios were calculated to explain differences in perinatal HIV prevention opportunities comparing U.S.-born to foreign-born and African-born to Caribbean-born black mothers. U.S.-born compared with foreign-born HIV-infected black mothers were significantly more likely to have used cocaine or other non-intravenous illicit drugs, exchanged money or drugs for sex, known their HIV status before giving birth, received intrapartum antiretroviral (ARV) prophylaxis, and delivered a premature infant; and were significantly less likely to have received prenatal care or delivered an HIV-infected infant. African-born compared with Caribbean-born black mothers were more likely to receive intrapartum ARV prophylaxis. These differences by maternal geographical origin have important implications for perinatal HIV transmission prevention, and highlight the validity of disaggregating data by racial/ethnic subgroups.

A strategic approach to public health workforce development and capacity building.

In February 2010, CDC's National Center for HIV/AIDS, Viral Hepatitis, Sexually Transmitted Disease (STD), and Tuberculosis (TB) Prevention (NCHHSTP) formally institutionalized workforce development and capacity building (WDCB) as one of six overarching goals in its 2010-2015 Strategic Plan. Annually, workforce team members finalize an action plan that lays the foundation for programs to be implemented for NCHHSTP's workforce that year. This paper describes selected WDCB programs implemented by NCHHSTP during the last 4 years in the three strategic goal areas: (1) attracting, recruiting, and retaining a diverse and sustainable workforce; (2) providing staff with development opportunities to ensure the effective and innovative delivery of NCHHSTP programs; and (3) continuously recognizing performance and achievements of staff and creating an atmosphere that promotes a healthy work-life balance. Programs have included but are not limited to an Ambassador Program for new hires, career development training for all staff, leadership and coaching for mid-level managers, and a Laboratory Workforce Development Initiative for laboratory scientists. Additionally, the paper discusses three overarching areas-employee communication, evaluation and continuous review to guide program development, and the implementation of key organizational and leadership structures to ensure accountability and continuity of programs. Since 2010, many lessons have been learned regarding strategic approaches to scaling up organization-wide public health workforce development and capacity building. Perhaps the most important is the value of ensuring the high-level strategic prioritization of this issue, demonstrating to staff and partners the importance of this imperative in achieving NCHHSTP's mission.

Development, reliability, and validity of an urban trail use survey.

PURPOSE: To evaluate the psychometric characteristics of the Research on Urban Trail Environments (ROUTES) Trail Use Questionnaire. DESIGN: Test-retest reliability was assessed by repeated measures (study 1); validity was assessed by comparing reported trail use to self-reported and objectively measured physical activity (PA) levels (study 2). SETTING: Study 1: a religious institution situated near a Los Angeles trail. Study 2: 1-mile buffer zones surrounding three urban trails (Chicago, Dallas, and Los Angeles). SUBJECTS: Thirty-four adults between 40 and 60 years of age (10 men and 24 women) completed the ROUTES questionnaire twice (study 1). Study 2 participants were 490 adults (48% female and 73% white), mean age 48 years. MEASURES: Trail use for recreation and transportation purposes, time and distance spent on trails, and characteristics of the trail and other trail users. PA was measured using the International Physical Activity Questionnaire and accelerometry. ANALYSES: Pearson correlation coefficients and kappa statistics were used for test-retest reliability for continuous and categorical variables, respectively. Generalized linear models were used to evaluate hypotheses on PA comparing trail users and nonusers. RESULTS: Test-retest statistics were acceptable (kappa = .57, r = .66). Validity was supported by correlations between indices of trail use with self-reported PA and accelerometry, and significant group differences between trail users and nonusers in PA levels. CONCLUSIONS: The ROUTES Trail Use Questionnaire demonstrated good reliability and validity.