Is salamander limb regeneration really perfect? Anatomical and morphogenetic analysis of forelimb muscle regeneration in GFP-transgenic axolotls as a basis for regenerative, developmental, and evolutionary studies.

The axolotl Ambystoma mexicanum is one of the most commonly used model organisms in developmental and regenerative studies because it can reconstitute what is believed to be a completely normal anatomical and functional forelimb/hindlimb after amputation. However, to date it has not been confirmed whether each regenerated forelimb muscle is really a "perfect" copy of the original muscle. This study describes the regeneration of the arm, forearm, hand, and some pectoral muscles (e.g., coracoradialis) in transgenic axolotls that express green fluorescent protein (GFP) in muscle fibers. The observations found that: (1) there were muscle anomalies in 43% of the regenerated forelimbs; (2) however, on average in each regenerated forelimb there are anomalies in only 2.5% of the total number of muscles examined, and there were no significant differences observed in the specific insertion and origin of the other muscles analyzed; (3) one of the most notable and common anomalies (seen in 35% of the regenerated forelimbs) was the presence of a fleshy coracoradialis at the level of the arm; this is a particularly outstanding configuration because in axolotls and in urodeles in general this muscle only has a thin tendon at the level of the arm, and the additional fleshy belly in the regenerated arms is strikingly similar to the fleshy biceps brachii of amniotes, suggesting a remarkable parallel between a regeneration defect and a major phenotypic change that occurred during tetrapod limb evolution; (4) during forelimb muscle regeneration there was a clear proximo-distal and radio-ulnar morphogenetic gradient, as seen in normal development, but also a ventro-dorsal gradient in the order of regeneration, which was not previously described in the literature. These results have broader implications for regenerative, evolutionary, developmental and morphogenetic studies.

Novel insights into the flexibility of cell and positional identity during urodele limb regeneration.

The ability of diverse metazoans to regenerate whole-body structures was first described systematically by Spallanzani in 1768 and continues to fascinate biologists today. Given the current interest in stem cell biology and its therapeutic potential, examples of vertebrate regeneration garner strong interest. Among regeneration-competent vertebrates such as the fish, frog, and salamander, the salamander is particularly impressive because it can regenerate the entire limb and tail as well as various internal organs as an adult (Goss 1969). This spectacular natural phenomenon leads us to ask what cellular properties allow regeneration and what prevents this phenomenon in other vertebrates. From this perspective, it is imperative to know whether the stem cells in regenerating limbs harbor particularly special traits such as a higher plasticity in cell fate compared to tissue stem cells in other organisms. Flexibility in cell fate needs to be considered with respect not only to tissue identity, but also to patterning because limb amputation causes cells in a particular limb segment to form more distal limb elements. How positional identity is encoded in stem cells and how it is controlled to produce only the missing portion of the limb are also questions of fundamental importance.