A global survey of the attitudes and perspectives of cognitive bias in forensic anthropology.

It is now well established that decision making can be susceptible to cognitive bias in a broad range of fields, with forensic science being no exception. Previously published research has revealed a bias blind spot in forensic science where examiners do not recognise bias within their own domain. A survey of 101 forensic anthropology practitioners (n = 52) and students (n = 38) was undertaken to assess their level of awareness of cognitive bias and investigate their attitudes towards cognitive bias within forensic anthropology. The results revealed that the forensic anthropology community (∼90%) had a high level of awareness of cognitive bias. Overall ∼89% expressed concerns about cognitive bias in the broad discipline of forensic science, their own domain of forensic anthropology, and in the evaluative judgments they made in reconstruction activities, identifying a significant reduction in the bias blind spot. However, more than half of the participants believed that bias can be reduced by sheer force of will, and there was a lack of consensus about implementing blinding procedures or context management. These findings highlight the need to investigate empirically the feasibility of proposed mitigating strategies within the workflow of forensic anthropologists and their capabilities for increasing the transparency in decision making.

Human identification: an investigation of 3D models of paranasal sinuses to establish a biological profile on a modern UK population.

Medical imaging is a valuable source for facilitating empirical research and provides an accessible gateway for developing novel forensic anthropological methods for analysis including 3D modelling. This is especially critical for the United Kingdom (UK), where methods developed from modern UK populations do not currently exist. This study introduces a new approach to assist in human identification using 3D models of the paranasal sinuses. The models were produced from a database of 500 modern CT scans provided by University College London Hospital. Linear measurements and elliptic Fourier coefficients taken from 1500 three-dimensional models across six ethnic groups assessed by one-way ANOVA and discriminant function analysis showed a range of classification rates with certain rates reaching 75-85.7% (p < 0.05) in correctly classifying age and sex according to size and shape. The findings offer insights into the potential for employing paranasal sinuses as an attribute for establishing the identification of unknown human remains in future crime reconstructions.

Sex estimation from virtual models: exploring the potential of stereolithic 3D crania models for morphoscopic trait scoring.

Modern computed tomography (CT) databases are becoming an accepted resource for the practice and development of identification methods in forensic anthropology. However, the utility of 3D models created using free and open-source visualization software such as 3D Slicer has not yet been thoroughly assessed for morphoscopic biological profiling methods where virtual methods of analysis are becoming more common. This paper presents a study that builds on the initial findings from Robles et al. (2020) to determine the feasibility of estimating sex on stereolithic (STL) 3D cranial models produced from CT scans from a modern, living UK population (n = 80) using equation 2 from the Walker's (2008) morphoscopic method. Kendall's coefficients of concordance (KCC) indicated substantial agreement using cranial features scores in an inter-observer test and a video-inter-observer test. Fleiss' Kappa scores showed moderate agreement (0.50) overall between inter-observer sex estimations, and for observer sex estimations in comparison to recorded sexes (0.56). It was found that novice users could virtually employ morphoscopic sex estimation methods effectively on STL 3D cranial models from modern individuals. This study also highlights the potential that digital databases of modern living populations can offer forensic anthropology. Key points: First example of Walker's (2008) method applied to a living UK population.Open-source software is a valuable resource for crime reconstruction approaches.Male scoring bias was observed in method application.Forensic anthropologists would benefit from virtual anthropology training to use and interpret 3D models.Digital databases offer more ethical, diverse, modern populations for future research.

Investigating the uses of mobile phone evidence in China criminal proceedings.

Data from mobile phones are regularly used in the investigation of crime and court proceedings. Previously published research has primarily addressed technical issues or provided operational manuals for using forensic science evidence, rather than analysing human factors and the implementation of forensic tools in investigation settings. Moreover, previous research has focused almost entirely on western countries, and there is a dearth of research into the uses of forensic evidence in China. In this study, a review was carried out of court sentencing documents referring to mobile phone evidence in China over the period 2013-2018. Automated content analysis was used to identify the specific evidence types utilised and the sentencing outcome for each case. Results show that mobile phone evidence was used in 3.3% of criminal proceedings. Among various data types mentioned in criminal proceedings, call records sustained as the most frequently used type of data. After which, instant messaging tools (e.g. WeChat) are an increasing proportion of all mobile phone evidence, from 1% in 2015 to 25% in 2018. For cases that utilised mobile phone data, the analysis of instant messaging and online transaction tools is routine, with little variation in the use of each application (WeChat, Alipay, QQ) for investigations of different types of crime. However, in the majority of criminal cases, mobile phone data function as subsidiary evidence and posed limited impacts on verdict reached. The current findings indicate that a large amount of mobile phone evidence was transformed into other evidence formats or filtered out directly before court proceedings.

An investigation into the accuracy of follow-on GPRS/mobile data CDRs.

This study investigated the accuracy of 3G and 4G follow-on GPRS (General Packet Radio Service)/mobile data CDRs (Call Detail Records) from three UK mobile network operators (EE, Vodafone and Three). Follow-on GPRS/mobile data CDRs are currently considered to be more open to misinterpretation than voice/SMS CDRs as uncertainties exist regarding the correspondence between the timestamp and the Cell ID presented within the CDRs. Consequently, follow-on GPRS/mobile CDRs may be disregarded during criminal investigations, potentially losing valuable intelligence and evidence. To assess the accuracy of follow-on GPRS/mobile data CDRs, connected mode RF (Radio Frequency) surveys were conducted while simultaneously producing follow-on GPRS/mobile data CDRs in a travelling vehicle. This allowed a comparison of the start Cell ID presented in the CDR and the Cell ID that provided coverage to the device at the start time of the CDR to assess the correspondence between the timestamp and the Cell ID presented within the CDRs, and to consider the validity of the terminology used by experts. It was found that individual follow-on GPRS/mobile data CDRs cannot consistently place a device within the coverage area of the start Cell ID at the start time of the CDR. Instead, the results indicate that a terminology which places the device within the coverage area of the start Cell ID 'at or before' the start time of the CDR is appropriate. It is crucial that follow-on GPRS/mobile data CDRs are analysed with this consideration in mind so to interpret the evidence correctly.

The value of eye-tracking technology in the analysis and interpretations of skeletal remains: A pilot study.

This initial study is the first to use eye-trackers as a tool in order to study gaze pattern strategies and decision making processes involved in the assessment of skeletal remains. Three experienced participants were asked to wear eye-tracking glasses (Tobii Pro Glasses 2) when estimating sex and age-at-death of one set of skeletal remains from a known archeological sample. The study assessed participants' fixation points (the features of the skeleton focused on), fixation duration (the total time spent on each assessment and feature) as well as visit count and duration (the total number of visits and the duration of visits to particular areas). The preliminary results of this study identified differences in gaze "strategies" with regards to fixation points, visit duration, and visit counts between the participants. The data generated provide a starting point for assessing how such technologies could be used in order to more fully understand the decision making processes involved in forensic anthropological interpretations and their role in forensic reconstructions.

A cultural change to enable improved decision-making in forensic science: A six phased approach.

There has been an increased engagement by researchers in understanding the decision-making processes that occur within forensic science. There is a rapidly growing evidence base underpinning our understanding of decision-making and human factors and this body of work is the foundation for achieving truly improved decision-making in forensic science. Such an endeavour is necessary to minimise the misinterpretation of scientific evidence and maximize the effectiveness of crime reconstruction approaches and their application within the criminal justice system. This paper proposes and outlines a novel six phased approach for how a broadening and deepening knowledge of decision-making in forensic science can be articulated and incorporated into the spheres of research, practice, education, and policy making within forensic science specifically, and the criminal justice system more generally. Phases 1 and 2 set out the importance of systematic examination of the decisions which play a role throughout forensic reconstruction and legal processes. Phase 3 focuses on how these decisions can, and should, be studied to understand the underlying mechanisms and contribute to reducing the occurrence of misleading decisions. Phase 4 highlights the ways in which the results and implications of this research should be communicated to the forensic community and wider criminal justice system. Lastly, the way in which the forensic science domain can move forwards in managing the challenges of human decision-making and create and embed a culture of acceptance and transparency in research, practice and education (learning and training) are presented in phases 5 and 6. A consideration of all 6 connected phases offers a pathway for a holistic approach to improving the transparency and reproducibility of decision making within forensic science.

Cascading Bias of Initial Exposure to Information at the Crime Scene to the Subsequent Evaluation of Skeletal Remains.

Thirty-eight participants took part in a study that investigated the potential cascading effects of initial exposure to extraneous context upon subsequent decision-making. Participants investigated a mock crime scene, which included the excavation of clandestine burials that had a male skeletal cast dressed either in female or gender neutral clothing. This was followed by a forensic anthropological assessment of the skeletal remains, with a control group assessing the same male skeletal cast without any clothing context. The results indicated that the sex assessment was highly dependent upon the context in which participants were exposed to prior to the analysis. This was especially noticeable in the female clothing context where only one participant determined the male skeletal cast to be male. The results demonstrate the importance of understanding the role of context in forensic anthropology at an early stage of an investigation and its potential cascading effect on subsequent assessments.

Cognitive bias in forensic anthropology: visual assessment of skeletal remains is susceptible to confirmation bias.

An experimental study was designed to examine cognitive biases within forensic anthropological non-metric methods in assessing sex, ancestry and age at death. To investigate examiner interpretation, forty-one non-novice participants were semi randomly divided into three groups. Prior to conducting the assessment of the skeletal remains, two of the groups were given different extraneous contextual information regarding the sex, ancestry and age at death of the individual. The third group acted as a control group with no extraneous contextual information. The experiment was designed to investigate if the interpretation and conclusions of the skeletal remains would differ amongst participants within the three groups, and to assess whether the examiners would confirm or disagree with the given extraneous context when establishing a biological profile. The results revealed a significant biasing effect within the three groups, demonstrating a strong confirmation bias in the assessment of sex, ancestry and age at death. In assessment of sex, 31% of the participants in the control group concluded that the skeleton remains were male. In contrast, in the group that received contextual information that the remains were male, 72% concluded that the remains were male, and in the participant group where the context was that the remains were of a female, 0% of the participants concluded that the remains were male. Comparable results showing bias were found in assessing ancestry and age at death. These data demonstrate that cognitive bias can impact forensic anthropological non-metric methods on skeletal remains and affects the interpretation and conclusions of the forensic scientists. This empirical study is a step in establishing an evidence base approach for dealing with cognitive issues in forensic anthropological assessments, so as to enhance this valuable forensic science discipline.

The power of contextual effects in forensic anthropology: a study of biasability in the visual interpretations of trauma analysis on skeletal remains.

The potential for contextual information to bias assessments in the forensic sciences has been demonstrated, in several forensic disiplines. In this paper, biasability potential within forensic anthropology was examined by analyzing the effects of external manipulations on judgments and decision-making in visual trauma assessment. Three separate websites were created containing fourteen identical images. Participants were randomly assigned to one website. Each website provided different contextual information, to assess variation of interpretation of the same images between contexts. The results indicated a higher scoring of trauma identification responses for the Mass grave context. Furthermore, a significant biasing effect was detected in the interpretation of four images. Less experienced participants were more likely to indicate presence of trauma. This research demonstrates bias impact in forensic anthropological trauma assessments and highlights the importance of recognizing and limiting cognitive vulnerabilities that forensic anthropologists might bring to the analysis.