Nanoscale Probing of Electrical Memory Effects in van der Waals Layered PdSe2.

Tunable electronic materials that can be switched between different impedance states are fundamental to the hardware elements for neuromorphic computing architectures. This "brain-like" computing paradigm uses highly paralleled and colocated data processing, leading to greatly improved energy efficiency and performance compared to traditional architectures in which data have to be frequently transferred between processor and memory. In this work, we use scanning microwave impedance microscopy for nanoscale electrical and electronic characterization of two-dimensional layered semiconductor PdSe2 to probe neuromorphic properties. The local resolution of tens of nanometers reveals significant differences in electronic behavior between and within PdSe2 nanosheets (NSs). In particular, we detected both n-type and p-type behaviors, although previous reports only point to ambipolar n-type dominating characteristics. Nanoscale capacitance-voltage curves and subsequent calculation of characteristic maps revealed a hysteretic behavior originating from the creation and erasure of Se vacancies as well as the switching of defect charge states. In addition, stacks consisting of two NSs show enhanced resistive and capacitive switching, which is attributed to trapped charge carriers at the interfaces between the stacked NSs. Stacking n- and p-type NSs results in a combined behavior that allows one to tune electrical characteristics. As local inhomogeneities of electrical and electronic behavior can have a significant impact on the overall device performance, the demonstrated nanoscale characterization and analysis will be applicable to a wide range of semiconducting materials.

Electromechanical Coupling in Collagen Measured under Increasing Relative Humidity.

The functional role of collagen piezoelectricity has been under debate since the discovery of piezoelectricity in bone in 1957. The possibility that piezoelectricity plays a role in bone remodeling has generated interest in the investigation of this effect in relevant physiological conditions; however, there are conflicting reports as to whether collagen is piezoelectric in a humid environment. In macroscale measurements, the piezoelectricity in hydrated tendon has been shown to be insignificant compared to dehydrated tendon, whereas, at the nanoscale, the piezoelectric effect has been observed in both dry and wet bone using piezoresponse force microscopy (PFM). In this work, the electromechanical properties of type I collagen from a rat tail tendon have been investigated at the nanoscale as a function of humidity using lateral PFM (LPFM) for the first time. The relative humidity (RH) was varied from 10% to 70%, allowing the piezoelectric behavior to be studied dry, humid, as well as in the hydrated range for collagen in physiological bone (12% moisture content, corresponding to 40-50% RH). The results show that collagen piezoresponse can be measured across the humidity range studied, suggesting that piezoelectricity remains a property of collagen at a biologically relevant humidity.

Dynamic Stabilization of Metastable States in Triple-Well Ferroelectric Sn2 P2 S6.

Polarization dynamics in ferroelectric materials is governed by the effective potential energy landscape of the order parameter. The unique aspect of ferroelectrics compared to many other transitions is the possibility of more than two potential wells, leading to complicated energy landscapes with new fundamental and functional properties. Here, direct dynamic evidence is revealed of a triple-well potential in the metal thiophosphate Sn2 P2 S6 compound using multivariate scanning probe microscopy combined with theoretical simulations. The key finding is that the metastable zero polarization state can be accessed through a gradual switching process and is stabilized over a broad range of electric fields. Simulations confirm that the observed zero polarization state originates from a kinetic stabilization of the nonpolar state of the triple-well, as opposed to domain walls. Dynamically, the triple-well of Sn2 P2 S6 becomes equivalent to antiferroelectric hysteresis loops. Therefore, this material combines the robust and well-defined domain structure of a proper ferroelectric with dynamic hysteresis loops present in antiferroelectrics. Moreover, the triple-well enhances mem-capacitive effects in Sn2 P2 S6 , which are forbidden for ideal double-well ferroelectrics. These findings provide a path to tunable electronic elements for beyond binary high-density computing devices and neuromorphic circuits based on dynamic properties of the triple-well.

Differences in the Interfacial Mechanical Properties of Thiophosphate and Argyrodite Solid Electrolytes and Their Composites.

Interfacial mechanics are a significant contributor to the performance and degradation of solid-state batteries. Spatially resolved measurements of interfacial properties are extremely important to effectively model and understand the electrochemical behavior. Herein, we report the interfacial properties of thiophosphate (Li3PS4)- and argyrodite (Li6PS5Cl)-type solid electrolytes. Using atomic force microscopy, we showcase the differences in the surface morphology as well as adhesion of these materials. We also investigate solvent-less processing of hybrid electrolytes using UV-assisted curing. Physical, chemical, and structural characterizations of the materials highlight the differences in the surface morphology, chemical makeup, and distribution of the inorganic phases between the argyrodite and thiophosphate solid electrolytes.

Revealing Fast Cu-Ion Transport and Enhanced Conductivity at the CuInP2S6-In4/3P2S6 Heterointerface.

Van der Waals layered ferroelectrics, such as CuInP2S6 (CIPS), offer a versatile platform for miniaturization of ferroelectric device technologies. Control of the targeted composition and kinetics of CIPS synthesis enables the formation of stable self-assembled heterostructures of ferroelectric CIPS and nonferroelectric In4/3P2S6 (IPS). Here, we use quantitative scanning probe microscopy methods combined with density functional theory (DFT) to explore in detail the nanoscale variability in dynamic functional properties of the CIPS-IPS heterostructure. We report evidence of fast ionic transport which mediates an appreciable out-of-plane electromechanical response of the CIPS surface in the paraelectric phase. Further, we map the nanoscale dielectric and ionic conductivity properties as we thermally stimulate the ferroelectric-paraelectric phase transition, recovering the local dielectric behavior during this phase transition. Finally, aided by DFT, we reveal a substantial and tunable conductivity enhancement at the CIPS/IPS interface, indicating the possibility of engineering its interfacial properties for next generation device applications.

Nanoscale Control of Polar Surface Phases in Layered van der Waals CuInP2S6.

Antiferroelectric (AFE) materials, in which alternating dipole moments cancel out to a zero net macroscopic polarization, can be used for high-density energy storage and memory applications. The AFE phase can exist in bulk CuInP2Se6, CuBiP2S6, and a few other transition-metal thiophosphates below 200 K. The required low temperature poses challenges for practical applications. In this work, we report the coexistence of ferrielectric (FE) states and a stable surface phase that does not show piezoelectric response ("zero-response phase") in bulk CuInP2S6 at room temperature. Using piezoresponse force microscopy (PFM) tomographic imaging together with density functional theory, we find that direct and alternating voltages can locally and stably convert FE to zero-response phases and vice versa. While PFM loops show pinched hystereses reminiscent of antiferroelectricity, PFM tomography reveals that the zero-response areas form only on top of the FE phase in which the polarization vector is pointing up. Theoretical calculations suggest that the zero-response phase may correspond to AFE ordering where stacked CuInP2S6 layers have alternating polarization orientations thereby leading to a net-zero polarization. Consistent with experimental findings, theory predicts that the FE polarization pointing down is robust up to the top surface, whereas FE polarization pointing up energetically favors the formation of an AFE surface layer, whose thickness is likely to be sensitive to local strains. AFE order is likely to be more robust against detrimental size effects than polar order, therefore providing additional opportunities to create multifunctional heterostructures with 2D electronic materials.

Ionic Control over Ferroelectricity in 2D Layered van der Waals Capacitors.

The van der Waals layered material CuInP2S6 features interesting functional behavior, including the existence of four uniaxial polarization states, polarization reversal against the electric field through Cu ion migration, a negative-capacitance regime, and reversible extraction of Cu ions. At the heart of these characteristics lies the high mobility of Cu ions, which also determines the spontaneous polarization. Therefore, Cu migration across the lattice results in unusual ferroelectric behavior. Here, we demonstrate how the interplay of polar and ionic properties provides a path to ionically controlled ferroelectric behavior, achieved by applying selected DC voltage pulses and subsequently probing ferroelectric switching during fast triangular voltage sweeps. Using current measurements and theoretical calculations, we observe that increasing DC pulse duration results in higher ionic currents, the buildup of an internal electric field that shifts polarization loops, and an increase in total switchable polarization by ∼50% due to the existence of a high polarization phase which is stabilized by the internal electric field. Apart from tuning ferroelectric behavior by selected square pulses, hysteretic polarization switching can even be entirely deactivated and reactivated, resulting in three-state systems where polarization switching is either inhibited or can be performed in two different directions.

Maximizing Information: A Machine Learning Approach for Analysis of Complex Nanoscale Electromechanical Behavior in Defect-Rich PZT Films.

Scanning Probe Microscopy (SPM) based techniques probe material properties over microscale regions with nanoscale resolution, ultimately resulting in investigation of mesoscale functionalities. Among SPM techniques, piezoresponse force microscopy (PFM) is a highly effective tool in exploring polarization switching in ferroelectric materials. However, its signal is also sensitive to sample-dependent electrostatic and chemo-electromechanical changes. Literature reports have often concentrated on the evaluation of the Off-field piezoresponse, compared to On-field piezoresponse, based on the latter's increased sensitivity to non-ferroelectric contributions. Using machine learning approaches incorporating both Off- and On-field piezoresponse response as well as Off-field resonance frequency to maximize information, switching piezoresponse in a defect-rich Pb(Zr,Ti)O3 thin film is investigated. As expected, one major contributor to the piezoresponse is mostly ferroelectric, coupled with electrostatic phenomena during On-field measurements. A second component is electrostatic in nature, while a third component is likely due to a superposition of multiple non-ferroelectric processes. The proposed approach will enable deeper understanding of switching phenomena in weakly ferroelectric samples and materials with large chemo-electromechanical response.

Strain-driven autonomous control of cation distribution for artificial ferroelectrics.

In past few decades, there have been substantial advances in theoretical material design and experimental synthesis, which play a key role in the steep ascent of developing functional materials with unprecedented properties useful for next-generation technologies. However, the ultimate goal of synthesis science, i.e., how to locate atoms in a specific position of matter, has not been achieved. Here, we demonstrate a unique way to inject elements in a specific crystallographic position in a composite material by strain engineering. While the use of strain so far has been limited for only mechanical deformation of structures or creation of elemental defects, we show another powerful way of using strain to autonomously control the atomic position for the synthesis of new materials and structures. We believe that our synthesis methodology can be applied to wide ranges of systems, thereby providing a new route to functional materials.

Lowering of Tc in Van Der Waals Layered Materials Under In-Plane Strain.

The dependence of electromechanical behavior on strain in ferroelectric materials can be leveraged as parameter to tune ferroelectric properties such as the Curie temperature. For van der Waals materials, a unique opportunity arises because of wrinkling, bubbling, and Moiré phenomena accessible due to structural properties inherent to the van der Waals gap. Here, we use piezoresponse force microscopy and unsupervised machine learning methods to gain insight into the ferroelectric properties of layered CuInP2S6 where local areas are strained in-plane due to a partial delamination, resulting in a topographic bubble feature. We observe significant differences between strained and unstrained areas in piezoresponse images as well as voltage spectroscopy, during which strained areas show a sigmoid-shaped response usually associated with the response measured around the Curie temperature, indicating a lowering of the Curie temperature under tensile strain. These results suggest that strain engineering might be used to further increase the functionality of CuInP2S6 through locally modifying ferroelectric properties on the micro- and nanoscale.

Local Strain and Polarization Mapping in Ferrielectric Materials.

CuInP2S6 (CIPS) is a van der Waals material that has attracted attention because of its unusual properties. Recently, a combination of density functional theory (DFT) calculations and piezoresponse force microscopy (PFM) showed that CIPS is a uniaxial quadruple-well ferrielectric featuring two polar phases and a total of four polarization states that can be controlled by external strain. Here, we combine DFT and PFM to investigate the stress-dependent piezoelectric properties of CIPS, which have so far remained unexplored. The two different polarization phases are predicted to differ in their mechanical properties and the stress sensitivity of their piezoelectric constants. This knowledge is applied to the interpretation of ferroelectric domain images, which enables investigation of local strain and stress distributions. The interplay of theory and experiment produces polarization maps and layer spacings which we compare to macroscopic X-ray measurements. We found that the sample contains only the low-polarization phase and that domains of one polarization orientation are strained, whereas domains of the opposite polarization direction are fully relaxed. The described nanoscale imaging methodology is applicable to any material for which the relationship between electromechanical and mechanical characteristics is known, providing insight on structural, mechanical, and electromechanical properties down to ∼10 nm length scales.

Ferroelectricity in Si-Doped Hafnia: Probing Challenges in Absence of Screening Charges.

The ability to develop ferroelectric materials using binary oxides is critical to enable novel low-power, high-density non-volatile memory and fast switching logic. The discovery of ferroelectricity in hafnia-based thin films, has focused the hopes of the community on this class of materials to overcome the existing problems of perovskite-based integrated ferroelectrics. However, both the control of ferroelectricity in doped-HfO2 and the direct characterization at the nanoscale of ferroelectric phenomena, are increasingly difficult to achieve. The main limitations are imposed by the inherent intertwining of ferroelectric and dielectric properties, the role of strain, interfaces and electric field-mediated phase, and polarization changes. In this work, using Si-doped HfO2 as a material system, we performed a correlative study with four scanning probe techniques for the local sensing of intrinsic ferroelectricity on the oxide surface. Putting each technique in perspective, we demonstrated that different origins of spatially resolved contrast can be obtained, thus highlighting possible crosstalk not originated by a genuine ferroelectric response. By leveraging the strength of each method, we showed how intrinsic processes in ultrathin dielectrics, i.e., electronic leakage, existence and generation of energy states, charge trapping (de-trapping) phenomena, and electrochemical effects, can influence the sensed response. We then proceeded to initiate hysteresis loops by means of tip-induced spectroscopic cycling (i.e., "wake-up"), thus observing the onset of oxide degradation processes associated with this step. Finally, direct piezoelectric effects were studied using the high pressure resulting from the probe's confinement, noticing the absence of a net time-invariant piezo-generated charge. Our results are critical in providing a general framework of interpretation for multiple nanoscale processes impacting ferroelectricity in doped-hafnia and strategies for sensing it.

Piezoelectric domain walls in van der Waals antiferroelectric CuInP2Se6.

Polar van der Waals chalcogenophosphates exhibit unique properties, such as negative electrostriction and multi-well ferrielectricity, and enable combining dielectric and 2D electronic materials. Using low temperature piezoresponse force microscopy, we revealed coexistence of piezoelectric and non-piezoelectric phases in CuInP2Se6, forming unusual domain walls with enhanced piezoelectric response. From systematic imaging experiments we have inferred the formation of a partially polarized antiferroelectric state, with inclusions of structurally distinct ferrielectric domains enclosed by the corresponding phase boundaries. The assignment is strongly supported by optical spectroscopies and density-functional-theory calculations. Enhanced piezoresponse at the ferrielectric/antiferroelectric phase boundary and the ability to manipulate this entity with electric field on the nanoscale expand the existing phenomenology of functional domain walls. At the same time, phase-coexistence in chalcogenophosphates may lead to rational strategies for incorporation of ferroic functionality into van der Waals heterostructures, with stronger resilience toward detrimental size-effects.

Biocompatible chitosan-based composites with properties suitable for hyperthermia therapy.

Sustainably made, flexible and biocompatible composites, having environmentally friendly compositions and multifunctional capabilities, are promising materials for several emerging biomedical applications. Here, the development of flexible and multifunctional chitosan-based bionanocomposites with a mixed reduced graphene oxide-iron oxide (rGO-Fe3-xO4) filler is described. The filler is prepared by one-pot synthesis, ensuring good dispersibility of the Fe3-xO4 nanoparticles and rGO within the chitosan matrix during solvent casting. The resulting bionanocomposites present superparamagnetic response at room temperature. The antioxidant activity is 9 times higher than that of pristine chitosan. The mechanical properties of the films can be tuned from elastic (∼8 MPa) chitosan films to stiff (∼285 MPa) bionanocomposite films with 50% filler. The magnetic hyperthermia tests showed a temperature increase of 40 °C in 45 s for the 50% rGO-Fe3-xO4 film. Furthermore, the composites have no cytotoxicity to the nontumorigenic (HaCat) cell line, which confirms their biocompatibility and highlights the potential of these materials for biomedical applications, such as hyperthermia treatments.

To switch or not to switch - a machine learning approach for ferroelectricity.

With the advent of increasingly elaborate experimental techniques in physics, chemistry and materials sciences, measured data are becoming bigger and more complex. The observables are typically a function of several stimuli resulting in multidimensional data sets spanning a range of experimental parameters. As an example, a common approach to study ferroelectric switching is to observe effects of applied electric field, but switching can also be enacted by pressure and is influenced by strain fields, material composition, temperature, time, etc. Moreover, the parameters are usually interdependent, so that their decoupling toward univariate measurements or analysis may not be straightforward. On the other hand, both explicit and hidden parameters provide an opportunity to gain deeper insight into the measured properties, provided there exists a well-defined path to capture and analyze such data. Here, we introduce a new, two-dimensional approach to represent hysteretic response of a material system to applied electric field. Utilizing ferroelectric polarization as a model hysteretic property, we demonstrate how explicit consideration of electromechanical response to two rather than one control voltages enables significantly more transparent and robust interpretation of observed hysteresis, such as differentiating between charge trapping and ferroelectricity. Furthermore, we demonstrate how the new data representation readily fits into a variety of machine-learning methodologies, from unsupervised classification of the origins of hysteretic response via linear clustering algorithms to neural-network-based inference of the sample temperature based on the specific morphology of hysteresis.

Tunable quadruple-well ferroelectric van der Waals crystals.

The family of layered thio- and seleno-phosphates has gained attention as potential control dielectrics for the rapidly growing family of two-dimensional and quasi-two-dimensional electronic materials. Here we report a combination of density functional theory calculations, quantum molecular dynamics simulations and variable-temperature, -pressure and -bias piezoresponse force microscopy data to predict and verify the existence of an unusual ferroelectric property-a uniaxial quadruple potential well for Cu displacements-enabled by the van der Waals gap in copper indium thiophosphate (CuInP2S6). The calculated potential energy landscape for Cu displacements is strongly influenced by strain, accounting for the origin of the negative piezoelectric coefficient and rendering CuInP2S6 a rare example of a uniaxial multi-well ferroelectric. Experimental data verify the coexistence of four polarization states and explore the temperature-, pressure- and bias-dependent piezoelectric and ferroelectric properties, which are supported by bias-dependent molecular dynamics simulations. These phenomena offer new opportunities for both fundamental studies and applications in data storage and electronics.

Toward Electrochemical Studies on the Nanometer and Atomic Scales: Progress, Challenges, and Opportunities.

Electrochemical reactions and ionic transport underpin the operation of a broad range of devices and applications, from energy storage and conversion to information technologies, as well as biochemical processes, artificial muscles, and soft actuators. Understanding the mechanisms governing function of these applications requires probing local electrochemical phenomena on the relevant time and length scales. Here, we discuss the challenges and opportunities for extending electrochemical characterization probes to the nanometer and ultimately atomic scales, including challenges in down-scaling classical methods, the emergence of novel probes enabled by nanotechnology and based on emergent physics and chemistry of nanoscale systems, and the integration of local data into macroscopic models. Scanning probe microscopy (SPM) methods based on strain detection, potential detection, and hysteretic current measurements are discussed. We further compare SPM to electron beam probes and discuss the applicability of electron beam methods to probe local electrochemical behavior on the mesoscopic and atomic levels. Similar to a SPM tip, the electron beam can be used both for observing behavior and as an active electrode to induce reactions. We briefly discuss new challenges and opportunities for conducting fundamental scientific studies, matter patterning, and atomic manipulation arising in this context.

Room-Temperature Electrocaloric Effect in Layered Ferroelectric CuInP2S6 for Solid-State Refrigeration.

A material with reversible temperature change capability under an external electric field, known as the electrocaloric effect (ECE), has long been considered as a promising solid-state cooling solution. However, electrocaloric (EC) performance of EC materials generally is not sufficiently high for real cooling applications. As a result, exploring EC materials with high performance is of great interest and importance. Here, we report on the ECE of ferroelectric materials with van der Waals layered structure (CuInP2S6 or CIPS in this work in particular). Over 60% polarization charge change is observed within a temperature change of only 10 K at Curie temperature. Large adiabatic temperature change (|ΔT|) of 3.3 K and isothermal entropy change (|ΔS|) of 5.8 J kg-1 K-1 at |ΔE| = 142.0 kV cm-1 and at 315 K (above and near room temperature) are achieved, with a large EC strength (|ΔT|/|ΔE|) of 29.5 mK cm kV-1. The ECE of CIPS is also investigated theoretically by numerical simulation, and a further EC performance projection is provided.

Decoupling Mesoscale Functional Response in PLZT across the Ferroelectric-Relaxor Phase Transition with Contact Kelvin Probe Force Microscopy and Machine Learning.

Relaxor ferroelectrics exhibit a range of interesting material behavior, including high electromechanical response, polarization rotations, as well as temperature and electric field-driven phase transitions. The origin of this unusual functional behavior remains elusive due to limited knowledge on polarization dynamics at the nanoscale. Piezoresponse force microscopy and associated switching spectroscopy provide access to local electromechanical properties on the micro- and nanoscale, which can help to address some of these gaps in our knowledge. However, these techniques are inherently prone to artefacts caused by signal contributions emanating from electrostatic interactions between tip and sample. Understanding functional behavior of complex, disordered systems like relaxor materials with unknown electromechanical properties therefore requires a technique that allows distinguishing between electromechanical and electrostatic response. Here, contact Kelvin probe force microscopy (cKPFM) is used to gain insight into the evolution of local electromechanical and capacitive properties of a representative relaxor material lead lanthanum zirconate across the phase transition from a ferroelectric to relaxor state. The obtained multidimensional data set was processed using an unsupervised machine learning algorithm to detect variations in functional response across the probed area and temperature range. Further analysis showed the formation of two separate cKPFM response bands below 50 °C, providing evidence for polarization switching. At higher temperatures only one band is observed, indicating an electrostatic origin of the measured response. In addition, the junction potential difference, which was extracted from the cKPFM data, becomes independent of the temperature in the relaxor state. The combination of this multidimensional voltage spectroscopy technique and machine learning allows to identify the origin of the measured functional response and to decouple ferroelectric from electrostatic phenomena necessary to understand the functional behavior of complex, disordered systems like relaxor materials.

Surface Chemistry Controls Anomalous Ferroelectric Behavior in Lithium Niobate.

Polarization switching in ferroelectric materials underpins a multitude of applications ranging from nonvolatile memories to data storage to ferroelectric lithography. While traditionally considered to be a functionality of the material only, basic theoretical considerations suggest that switching is expected to be intrinsically linked to changes in the electrochemical state of the surface. Hence, the properties and dynamics of the screening charges can affect or control the switching dynamics. Despite being recognized for over 50 years, analysis of these phenomena remained largely speculative. Here, we explore polarization switching on the prototypical LiNbO3 surface using the combination of contact mode Kelvin probe force microscopy and chemical imaging by time-of-flight mass-spectrometry and demonstrate pronounced chemical differences between the domains. These studies provide a consistent explanation to the anomalous polarization and surface charge behavior observed in LiNbO3 and point to new opportunities in chemical control of polarization dynamics in thin films and crystals via control of surface chemistry, complementing traditional routes via bulk doping, and substrate-induced strain and tilt systems.