Comparative Metabolomics of Mycoplasma bovis and Mycoplasma gallisepticum Reveals Fundamental Differences in Active Metabolic Pathways and Suggests Novel Gene Annotations.

Mycoplasmas are simple, but successful parasites that have the smallest genome of any free-living cell and are thought to have a highly streamlined cellular metabolism. Here, we have undertaken a detailed metabolomic analysis of two species, Mycoplasma bovis and Mycoplasma gallisepticum, which cause economically important diseases in cattle and poultry, respectively. Untargeted gas chromatography-mass spectrometry and liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry analyses of mycoplasma metabolite extracts revealed significant differences in the steady-state levels of many metabolites in central carbon metabolism, while 13C stable isotope labeling studies revealed marked differences in carbon source utilization. These data were mapped onto in silico metabolic networks predicted from genome wide annotations. The analyses elucidated distinct differences, including a clear difference in glucose utilization, with a marked decrease in glucose uptake and glycolysis in M. bovis compared to M. gallisepticum, which may reflect differing host nutrient availabilities. The 13C-labeling patterns also revealed several functional metabolic pathways that were previously unannotated in these species, allowing us to assign putative enzyme functions to the products of a number of genes of unknown function, especially in M. bovis. This study demonstrates the considerable potential of metabolomic analyses to assist in characterizing significant differences in the metabolism of different bacterial species and in improving genome annotation. IMPORTANCE Mycoplasmas are pathogenic bacteria that cause serious chronic infections in production animals, resulting in considerable losses worldwide, as well as causing disease in humans. These bacteria have extremely reduced genomes and are thought to have limited metabolic flexibility, even though they are highly successful persistent parasites in a diverse number of species. The extent to which different Mycoplasma species are capable of catabolizing host carbon sources and nutrients, or synthesizing essential metabolites, remains poorly defined. We have used advanced metabolomic techniques to identify metabolic pathways that are active in two species of Mycoplasma that infect distinct hosts (poultry and cattle). We show that these species exhibit marked differences in metabolite steady-state levels and carbon source utilization. This information has been used to functionally characterize previously unknown genes in the genomes of these pathogens. These species-specific differences are likely to reflect important differences in host nutrient levels and pathogenic mechanisms.

Corticosterone inhibits normal and FSH-induced testicular recrudescence in the lizard, Mabuya carinata.

Administration (ip) of 1, 10, or 20 microg corticosterone (alternate days for 30 days) to adult male Mabuya carinata did not affect the seasonal recrudescence of spermatogenesis whereas administration of 40 microg corticosterone did result in inhibition of spermatogenesis. Further, administration of FSH (10 IU/lizard/alternate day for 30 days) during the quiescent phase of the testicular cycle stimulated spermatogenetic and steroidogenic activity of the testis as shown by significant increases in the mean number of spermatogonia, spermatocytes, and spermatids and serum levels of testosterone. In addition there were abundant spermatozoa in the lumen of the tubules in FSH-treated lizards. Administration of 10 IU FSH + 40 microg corticosterone (per lizard on alternate days for 30 days) increased the mean number of primary and secondary spermatocytes whereas the mean number of spermatids did not show significant variation compared with that of controls. Further, the mean numbers of spermatocytes and spermatids and serum levels of testosterone were significantly less when compared to those of FSH alone treated lizards. In addition, FSH-induced development of epididymis was also inhibited by corticosterone treatment. The results indicate that corticosterone inhibits FSH-induced testicular recrudescence, possibly by suppressing testosterone secretion in M. carinata.

Influence of corticosterone on FSH-induced ovarian recrudescence in the lizard Mabuya carinata.

Administration of bovine FSH (10 IU/lizard/alternate day for 30 days) in the postbreeding quiescent phase of the ovarian cycle caused a significant increase in the mean number of oogonia and oocytes, the relative weight of the oviduct, and the liver and serum estradiol levels compared to those of controls. In addition, the FSH-treated lizards showed a vitellogenic growth of follicles and development through to preovulatory follicles. However, the administration of corticosterone simultaneously with FSH (10 IU FSH + 40 microgram corticosterone/lizard/alternate day for 30 days) did not result in these changes and the ovaries resembled those of controls. The results indicate the absence of ovarian refractoriness to gonadotropic stimulation during the quiescent phase of the reproductive cycle and inhibition of FSH-induced ovarian recrudescence by corticosterone. It is suggested that corticosterone treatment reduces FSH-induced steroidogenic activity of the ovary, leads to impairment in vitellogenin secretion by the liver, and results as well in the failure of vitellogenic follicular growth in Mabuya carinata.