Reproductive interference between alien species in Veronica.

Reproductive interference can lead to the exclusive distribution of species. Reports on reproductive interference between alien species are scarce, although alien species are becoming more abundant and evaluations of the interference between aliens and its influence on community structure are essential. We therefore investigated the presence of interference in two alien species of Veronica, V. cymbalaria and V. persica. Hand-pollination experiments revealed that heterospecific pollen adversely affected both species, but asymmetrically: in V. cymbalaria, it reduced the number of seeds both before and after conspecific pollination, but in V. persica it reduced the number of seeds only when it occurred before conspecific pollination. Field observation suggested that the number of seeds produced by V. cymbalaria was more influenced by the number of conspecific flowers than by the frequency of surrounding V. persica flowers. Pot experiments did not show a negative effect of heterospecific individuals on the reproductive success of focal species in either species. Observations of visiting pollinators revealed no pollinator preference between the plant species. Although we demonstrated asymmetrical reproductive interference between V. cymbalaria and V. persica, its effect in the field seemed limited. An essential factor mitigating the adverse effect of reproductive interference might be a shortage of pollinators that could facilitate interspecific pollination. We predict that further invasion of V. cymbalaria into areas where V. persica prevails is unlikely, although swift displacement of V. cymbalaria by V. persica in areas where V. cymbalaria is already established is also unlikely.

Comparisons among populations and individuals to evaluate pollen-pistil interaction as a mechanism of reproductive interference in Taraxacum.

Reproductive interference (RI), an interspecific mating interaction that reduces the fitness of at least one of the species involved, can lead to exclusive distributions in closely related species. A hypothesis previously proposed is that RI in plants may occur by ovule usurpation, in which pistils lack interspecific incompatibility and mistakenly accept heterospecific pollen, thereby losing an opportunity for conspecific pollen fertilization. However, few comparative studies have evaluated the consistency of the inferred mechanism within and among individuals and populations. We conducted hand-pollination experiments in six populations of three native Taraxacum species that suffered from different levels of RI from an alien congener, T. officinale, and compared pollen-pistil interactions among populations. We also investigated the interactions for eight individual T. japonicum plants whose response to heterospecific pollen deposition had been previously measured. Our results revealed that pollen tubes often penetrated native ovaries following heterospecific pollination in populations suffering from strong RI, whereas they seldom did in populations suffering from marginal RI. However, the relative frequency of the pollen tube penetration was not significantly related to the strength of alien RI. Not all pistils on an individual plant showed the same pollen receptivity following heterospecific pollination; rather, some accepted and some refused the pollen tubes. The relationship between pollen tube penetration following heterospecific pollination and the strength of the alien RI was also not significant among individuals. Our present results generally support the ovule usurpation hypothesis, but suggest that other factors, such as competition for pollinator services, variation in the effects of heterospecific pollen donors, and condition of the native inflorescences, might also affect the observed RI strength.

Habitat partitioning in native Geranium species through reproductive interference.

BACKGROUND AND AIMS: Heterospecific pollen transfer may reduce the fitness of recipient species, a phenomenon known as reproductive interference. A theoretical study has predicted that distributions of species pairs affected by reproductive interference may be syntopic under negligible reproductive interference, sympatric but with partitioning at small spatial scale (i.e. allotopic) under weak interference, or exclusive when reproductive interference is strong. Verifying these predictions is essential for evaluation of the applicability of reproductive interference as a general assembly rule of biological communities. The aim of this study was to test these predictions in two sympatrically distributed wild Geranium species, G. thunbergii and G. wilfordii. METHODS: To measure the effect of reproductive interference, the associations between the relative abundance of the counterpart species and seed set in the focal species, and seed set reduction following mixed pollination, were analysed. The possibility of hybridization with viable offspring was examined by genotyping plants in the field and after mixed pollination. Fertility of putative hybrids was based on their seed set and the proportion of pollen grains with apertural protrusions. A transect study was conducted to examine spatial partitioning, and possible influences of environmental conditions (canopy openness and soil moisture content) on partitioning between the species were analysed. KEY RESULTS: Neither abundance of the counterpart species nor heterospecific pollen deposition significantly affected seed set in the focal species, and hybridization between species was almost symmetrical. Putative hybrids had low fertility. The two species were exclusively distributed at small scale, although environmental conditions were not significantly different between them. CONCLUSIONS: The allotopy of the two species may be maintained by relatively weak reproductive interference through bidirectional hybridization. Re-evaluation of hybridization may allow ongoing or past reproductive interference to be recognized and provide insight into the distributional relationships between the interacting plants.

Comparison of mechanisms of reproductive interference in Taraxacum.

BACKGROUND AND AIMS: Reproductive interference may reduce fitness of either of the involved species, with potentially important ecological and evolutionary consequences. Except for the effect of shared pollinators on reproductive success, however, mechanisms underlying reproductive interference have been little studied, even though the severity of its impact may depend on the specific mechanism. The aim of this study was therefore to explore the mechanisms of reproductive interference between Taraxacum japonicum (native to Japan) and Taraxacum officinale (alien). METHODS: In a field survey, the association between alien species density and seed set in T. japonicum, and whether pollinator behaviour indicated a preference for the alien, were examined. Effects of heterospecific pollen deposition were measured in a series of hand pollination experiments, including mixed pollination experiments in which the order of application of conspecific and heterospecific pollen was varied. Finally, to investigate hybridization frequency, the parentage of seedlings produced following natural, mixed or heterospecific pollination was compared. KEY RESULTS: Alien species density did not negatively affect native seed set, nor did pollinators appear to have a preference for alien flowers. The hand pollination experiments showed that heterospecific pollen deposition adversely affected native seed set, especially when alien pollen was applied before conspecific pollen. No viable hybrids were found following natural pollination, which suggests that hybridization might be a rare event. CONCLUSION: Among the examined mechanisms, heterospecific pollen deposition might have the largest deleterious effect on the native species. This effect is frequency dependent; thus, a positive feedback loop may cause the effect on the population dynamics to increase over time, with the result that the alien might eventually displace the native in a population. Effects of the examined mechanisms on population dynamics should be investigated further to improve understanding of the impact of reproductive interference on the structure of plant communities.

Variation in the strength of reproductive interference from an alien congener to a native species in Taraxacum.

Reproductive interference (RI) may be a contributing factor to the displacement of native species by an alien congener, and RI strength has been shown theoretically to affect distributional relationships between species. Thus, variations in RI strength from alien to native species result in different consequences of invasions and efforts to conserve native species, but the variations have seldom been examined empirically. We therefore investigated RI strength variations from the alien species Taraxacum officinale and its hybrids to eight populations of native dandelions, four T. japonicum populations and two populations each of two subspecies of T. platycarpum. We examined the association between alien relative abundance and native seed set in field surveys, and we also performed hand-pollination experiments to investigate directly the sensitivity of native flowers to alien pollen. We found that the effect of alien relative abundance on native seed set of even the same native species could differ greatly in different regions, and that the sensitivity of native flowers to alien pollen was also dependent on region. Our results, together with those of previous studies, show that RI from the alien to the native species is strong in regions where the alien species outnumbers the native species and marginal where it does not; this result suggests that alien RI can critically affect distributional relationships between native and alien species. Our study highlights the importance of performing additional empirical investigations of RI strength variation and of giving due attention to alien RI in efforts to conserve regional native biodiversity.

Effective range of reproductive interference exerted by an alien dandelion, Taraxacum officinale, on a native congener.

Reproductive interference (RI), defined as the fitness cost of interspecific sexual interactions, such as interspecific pollen transfer (IPT) in plants, is ecologically important. Theoretically, RI could result in competitive exclusion, as it operates in a frequency-dependent manner. Additionally, IPT may have a greater range than resource competition, although information about the range of IPT is lacking. In the present study, we measured the range of IPT exerted by Taraxacum officinale (an alien species) on a native dandelion, T. japonicum. We used two approaches. In one, we analyzed the RI effect on a native seed set at three spatial scales. In the second, we tracked IPT from alien to native flower heads using fluorescent pigments as markers. We estimated that pollination distances were in the order of several meters. These distances exceeded the mean distance from each native plant to the nearest alien. As hypothesized, the effect of RI reached farther than neighboring individuals. These data indicate the spatial range from which alien dandelions should be removed to allow the conservation of natives.

Mouse-human chimeric anti-Tn IgG1 induced anti-tumor activity against Jurkat cells in vitro and in vivo.

Tn-antigen (alpha-N-acetyl-galactosamine(GalNAc)-Ser/Thr) is a cancer-associated carbohydrate antigen expressed in various epithelial and hematological cancers, and although a number of anti-Tn IgG and IgM antibodies have been generated, they have not been fully validated for cancer immunotherapy. In this study, we generated a novel murine anti-Tn IgG1 monoclonal antibody, KM3413, by immunization of mucins purified from a culture supernatant of LS180: a human colon cancer cell line. The binding of KM3413 was detected against consecutive Tn-antigens (Tn3 and Tn2), but not against monovalent antigens (Tn1). The affinity (K(D)) of KM3413 was determined to be about 10(-7) M with BIAcore. Cross-reactivity against type-A blood antigen, which shares a sugar residue, alpha-linked GalNAc, with Tn-antigen, was not detected. Next, we generated mouse-human chimeric IgG1 of KM3413 (cKM3413) and evaluated its anti-tumor activities against Jurkat: a human T-lymphoid leukemia cell line. In vitro assay revealed that cKM3413 induced antibody-dependent cellular cytotoxicity (ADCC) and direct killing activity with cross-link antibody. Furthermore, treatment of cKM3413 (1 or 10 mg/kg) showed significantly better survival of Jurkat-inoculated C.B-17/lcr-scid Jcl mice compared with controls using PBS treatment (p<0.001). These results suggest that humanized antibody against clustered Tn-antigens is a promising therapeutic antibody against Tn-positive cancers.

Protease-catalyzed esterification of amino acid in water-miscible ionic liquid.

The activity of two proteases in the esterification of N-acetyl-L-phenylalanine with ethanol was examined in the water-miscible ionic liquid, 1-ethyl-3-methylimidazolium trifluoromethanesulfonate ([emim][Tf]). The activity of subtilisin was not only improved 9-fold by changing from a water-miscible organic solvent, acetonitrile, to [emim][Tf], but also was about three times greater than that in a water-immiscible organic solvent, octane. Likewise, the activity of alpha-chymotrypsin in [emim][Tf] was more effectively enhanced compared with that in a water-miscible or a water-immiscible organic solvent. The water content in [emim][Tf] affected the activity of subtilisin.

A comparative study on the anatomy and development of different shapes of domatia in Cinnamomum camphora (Lauraceae).

BACKGROUND AND AIMS: Domatia are small organs usually found in the axils of major veins on the underside of leaves and, although they have received wide attention from ecologists, few detailed reports exist on their anatomy or development. This study is focused on the domatia of Cinnamomum camphora (Lauraceae) and is the first comparative study on the anatomy and development of the different shapes of domatia within a single plant. METHODS: Four types of domatia in C. camphora leaves were observed on paraffin sections under a microscope. KEY RESULTS: The domatia consisted of six histological parts: the upper epidermis, the upper mesophyll tissue, spongy tissue, the lower mesophyll tissue, the tissue filling the rim opening, and the lower epidermis. They differed from the non-domatial lamina mainly in the cell structure of the upper and lower mesophyll tissue and the rim tissue. Differences in domatium shapes were mainly associated with differences in the structure of the upper mesophyll and in the number and size of the rim tissue cells. Differences in the development of domatium types were observed in terms of initiation timing, differentiation of the upper mesophyll cells and degree of rim tissue development. CONCLUSIONS: In domatia, active anticlinal division in the lower mesophyll cells, as compared with the upper mesophyll cells, was coordinated with dynamic growth of rim tissue cells and resulted in cavity formation. The anatomical or developmental differences among the four types of domatia were related to the positions of the domatia within a leaf. In terms of the ecological implications, the major anatomical difference between the domatia used by herbivorous and carnivorous mites was in the development of the rim tissue.