Antimicrobial resistance profiles of salmonella spp. and escherichia coli isolated from fresh nile tilapia (oreochromis niloticus) fish marketed for human consumption.

BACKGROUND: Salmonella spp. and pathogenic strains of Escherichia coli are among the major foodborne zoonotic pathogens. These bacterial pathogens cause human illnesses characterized by hemorrhagic colitis, vomiting, nausea, and other agent-related symptoms. The increasing occurrence of antimicrobial resistance in these pathogens is also a serious public health concern globally. Regular surveillance of phenotypes and genotypes of Salmonella spp. and Escherichia coli from animal-derived foods is necessary for effective reduction and control of these foodborne pathogens. This study was conducted to assess the occurrence, antimicrobial resistance, virulence genes and genetic diversity of Salmonella spp. and E. coli isolates from fresh Nile tilapia obtained from retail markets in Nairobi, Kenya. METHODS: A total of 68 fresh Nile tilapia fish samples were collected from retail markets and used for isolation of Salmonella spp. and E. coli. Antimicrobial susceptibilities of the isolates weretested by Kirby-Bauer agar disc diffusion method. According to the antimicrobial resistance profiles, the multi-drug resistant isolates were identified by 16 S rRNA sequencing and phylogenetic analysis using the Bayesian inference method. The MDR Salmonella spp. and E. coli isolates were subjected to PCR-based screening for the detection virulence and antibiotic resistance genes. RESULTS: The prevalence of contamination of the fish samples with Salmonella spp. and E.coli was 26.47% and 35.29% respectively. Overall phenotypic resistance among the Salmonella spp. ranged from 5.5% for ceftazidime, chloramphenicol, meropenem, nitrofurantoin and streptomycin and 22.2% for penicillin-G. For E. coli phenotypic resistance ranged from 4.2% for ceftazidime and chloramphenicol and 25% for rifampicin. Multi-drug resistance was observed in three Salmonella spp. and two E. coli isolates. Results of 16 S rRNA sequences, sequence alignment and phylogenic trees confirmed the identified MDR isolates as S. typhymurium WES-09, S. typhymurium MAK-22, S. typhimurium EMB-32 and E. coli MAK-26 and E. coli LAN-35. The presence of antibiotic-resistance genes belonging to ß-lactamases, tetracycline, sulfonamide, trimethoprim and aminoglycosides-resistant genes were detected in all the identified MDR isolates. CONCLUSIONS: The findings from this study indicate that Nile tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus) sold in retail markets can acts as reservoirs of Salmonella spp. and E. coli pathogens linked to human disease, some of which were multidrug resistance to critically important antimicrobials. Both microorganisms are of zoonotic significance and represent a significant public health risk to the society.

Factors influencing somatic embryogenesis, regeneration, and Agrobacterium-mediated transformation of cassava (Manihot esculenta Crantz) cultivar TME14.

Routine production of large numbers of transgenic plants is required to fully exploit advances in cassava biotechnology and support development of improved germplasm for deployment to farmers. This article describes an improved, high-efficiency transformation protocol for recalcitrant cassava cultivar TME14 preferred in Africa. Factors that favor production of friable embryogenic calli (FEC) were found to be use of DKW medium, crushing of organized embryogenic structures (OES) through 1-2 mm sized metal wire mesh, washing of crushed OES tissues and short exposure of tyrosine to somatic embryos; and transformation efficiency was enhanced by use of low Agrobacterium density during co-cultivation, co-centrifugation of FEC with Agrobacterium, germination of paramomycin resistant somatic embryos on medium containing BAP with gradual increase in concentration and variations of the frequency of subculture of cotyledonary-stage embryos on shoot elongation medium. By applying the optimized parameters, FEC were produced for cassava cultivar TME14 and transformed using Agrobacterium strain LBA4404 harboring the binary vector pCAMBIA2301. About 70-80 independent transgenic lines per ml settled cell volume (SCV) of FEC were regenerated on selective medium. Histochemical GUS assays confirmed the expression of gusA gene in transformed calli, somatic embryos and transgenic plants. The presence and integration of the gusA gene were confirmed by PCR and Southern blot analysis, respectively. RT-PCR analysis of transgenic plants confirmed the expression of gusA gene. This protocol demonstrates significantly enhanced transformation efficiency over existing cassava transformation protocols and could become a powerful tool for functional genomics and transferring new traits into cassava.