Replicate contact zones suggest a limited role of plumage in reproductive isolation among subspecies of the variable seedeater (Sporophila corvina).

After establishing secondary contact, recently diverged populations may remain reproductively isolated or may hybridize to a varying extent depending on factors such as hybrid fitness and the strength of assortative mating. Here, we used genomic and phenotypic data from three independent contact zones between subspecies of the variable seedeater (Sporophila corvina) to examine how coloration and genetic divergence shape patterns of hybridization. We found that differences in plumage coloration are probably maintained by divergent selection across contact zones; however, the degree of plumage differentiation does not match overall patterns of hybridization. Across two parallel contact zones between populations with divergent phenotypes (entirely black vs. pied plumage), populations hybridized extensively across one contact zone but not the other, suggesting that plumage divergence is not sufficient to maintain reproductive isolation. Where subspecies hybridized, hybrid zones were wide and formed by later-generation hybrids, suggesting frequent reproduction and high survivorship for hybrid individuals. Moreover, contemporary gene flow has played an important role in shaping patterns of genetic structure between populations. Replicated contact zones between hybridizing taxa offer a unique opportunity to explore how different factors interact to shape patterns of hybridization. Overall, our results demonstrate that divergence in plumage coloration is important in reducing gene flow but insufficient in maintaining reproductive isolation in this clade, and that other factors such as divergence in song and time since secondary contact may also play an important role in driving patterns of reduced hybridization and gene flow.

Al establecer contacto secundario, las poblaciones que divergieron recientemente pueden permanecer reproductivamente aisladas o pueden hibridarse en distintos grados, dependiendo de factores como la aptitud (fitness) y la fuerza del apareamiento selectivo. Aquí, utilizamos datos genómicos y fenotípicos de tres zonas de contacto independientes entre subespecies del Semillero Variable (Sporophila corvina), para examinar cómo la coloración y la divergencia genética regulan los patrones de hibridación. A través de las zonas de contacto, encontramos que las diferencias en la coloración del plumaje posiblemente se mantienen por selección divergente, pero el grado de diferenciación no coincide con los patrones generales de hibridación. En dos zonas de contacto análogas entre poblaciones con fenotipos divergentes (totalmente negro vs plumaje de varios colores), las poblaciones hibridaron ampliamente en una zona de contacto, pero no en la otra, lo que sugiere que la divergencia del plumaje no es suficiente para mantener el aislamiento reproductivo. Donde las subespecies hibridaron, las zonas híbridas eran amplias y estaban formadas por híbridos de generaciones posteriores, lo que sugiere reproducción frecuente y alta sobrevivencia de los híbridos. Además, el flujo génico ha desempeñado un papel importante en la configuración de patrones de estructura genética entre poblaciones. Las réplicas de zonas de contacto entre taxones que hibridan ofrecen una oportunidad para explorar cómo interactúan diversos factores para dar forma a los patrones de hibridación. En general, nuestros resultados demuestran que la divergencia en la coloración del plumaje es importante para reducir el flujo génico, pero insuficiente para mantener el aislamiento reproductivo en este clado, y que otros factores, como la divergencia en el canto y el tiempo transcurrido desde el contacto secundario, también pueden desempeñar un papel importante en la reducción del flujo génico e hibridación.

Rapid diversification of the Variable Seedeater superspecies complex despite widespread gene flow.

Disentangling the evolutionary relationships of rapidly radiating clades is often challenging because of low genetic differentiation and potentially high levels of gene flow among diverging taxa. The genus Sporophila consists of small Neotropical birds that show, in general, relatively low genetic divergence, but particularly high speciation rates and pronounced variation in secondary sexual traits (e.g., plumage color), which can be important in generating premating reproductive isolation. In cases like these, the use of genome-wide sequence data can increase the resolution to uncover a clade's evolutionary history. Here, we used a phylogenomic approach to study the evolutionary history and genetic structure of the Variable Seedeater superspecies complex, which includes S. corvina, S. intermedia, and S. americana. Using ∼25,000 genome-wide single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs), we confirmed that the Variable Seedeater superspecies complex is monophyletic. However, a phylogenetic reconstruction based on a mitochondrial marker (ND2) resulted in a discordant tree topology, particularly in the position of Wing-barred Seedeater S. americana, which might be due to a mitochondrial capture event. Our results suggest historical gene flow among lineages, particularly between species with conflicting topologies. Among the four phenotypically variable S. corvina subspecies, our structure analyses identified three main distinct genetic groups (K = 3), and that the entirely black subspecies, S. c. corvina, is derived from within a pied-colored clade. Further, we inferred widespread gene flow across the whole species' distribution, including between subspecies. However, gene flow was about 100 times lower at the geographic boundaries of the entirely black and the pied subspecies, suggesting an important role for plumage divergence in limiting gene flow. Overall, our findings suggest that the early diversification of the Sporophila genus occurred rapidly despite historical gene flow between lineages and that divergence in plumage color possibly influences the extent of gene flow among taxa.

Do Different Methods Yield Equivalent Estimations of Brain Size in Birds?

The ratio of brain size to body size (relative brain size) is often used as a measure of relative investment in the brain in ecological and evolutionary studies on a wide range of animal groups. In birds, a variety of methods have been used to measure the brain size part of this ratio, including endocranial volume, fixed brain mass, and fresh brain mass. It is still unclear, however, whether these methods yield the same results. Using data obtained from fresh corpses and from published sources, this study shows that endocranial volume, mass of fixed brain tissue, and fresh mass provide equivalent estimations of brain size for 48 bird families, in 19 orders. We found, however, that the various methods yield significantly different brain size estimates for hummingbirds (Trochilidae). For hummingbirds, fixed brain mass tends to underestimate brain size due to reduced tissue density, whereas endocranial volume overestimates brain size because it includes a larger volume than that occupied by the brain.

Asociación entre la morfología alar y el uso del hábitat en seis especies de palomas (Columbidae) neotropicales

Los factores biomecánicos, el comportamiento e historia natural de las especies pueden influenciar la forma y dimensión del ala en las aves. Por lo tanto, la morfología de las alas de cada especie podría estar adaptada al ambiente en el que habitan. En palomas (familia Columbidae) existe un gradiente de especies que tienden a volar mucho y otras que vuelan muy poco. El objetivo de esta investigación es determinar si la forma de las alas de seis especies de palomas se asocia con su capacidad de vuelo. Predecimos que las especies Patagioenas flavirostris y P. nigrirostris que tienden a volar largas distancias presentan alas relativamente largas y puntiagudas; mientras que Geotrygon montana que se desplaza principalmente caminando presenta alas relativamente anchas y redondeadas. Especies con capacidad de vuelo intermedio (Leptotila verreauxi, L. cassini y Zenaida asiatica) van a presentar alas con características intermedias. Estimamos la carga alar, proporción de la forma, conicidad alar, largo relativo y el área alar promedio para cada especie. Realizamos un análisis discriminante para determinar cuál combinación de variables explica mejor la diferencia morfológica de las alas entre las seis especies y probamos que tan robusto es este modelo mediante una prueba binomial. El modelo clasificó correctamente el 57 % de los individuos en su propia especie. Por lo tanto, encontramos que el tipo de desplazamiento predominante en cada una de las seis especies de Columbidae analizadas, se asocia con la morfología alar: alas adaptadas para vuelos en zonas abiertas en P. flavirostris y P. nigrirostris, alas adaptadas para vuelos muy maniobrables en hábitats densos en G. montana, y alas con características intermedias en L. verreauxi, L. cassini y Z. asiatica.

Biomechanics, behavior, and natural history influence wing dimension and shape. Wing design often correlates with features of the habitat in which each species is found. Doves and pigeons (Columbidae family) range from long-distance fliers (e.g., canopy and open area species) to very short-distance fliers (e.g., species adapted to dense understory forests) and such variation makes this group fit to test the association between flying habits and wing morphology. Our objective in this study is to determine whether the wing morphology (shape and dimensions) of six dove species is associated to their flying capability. We predict that the long-distance fliers Patagioenas flavirostris and P. nigrirostris will have long and sharp wings; while the very short-distance flier Geotrygon montana will have broad and rounded wings. Other species (e.g., Leptotila verreauxi, L. cassini and Zenaida asiatica) whose flying capability fits in between these two will have wings with intermediate morphological features. We measured the wing disc loading, shape ratio, the ratio of mean to maximum wing chord, relative wing length, and wing area for each species. We conducted a discriminant function analysis to compare which variables explain better the differences in wing morphology across the six species, and used a binomial test to evaluate the power of the model. The model correctly classified 57 % of individuals within their own species. The flying capability is associated with the wing morphology of the six Columbidae species; with a wing design for long-distance fliers in P. flavirostris and P. nigrirostris, wing design for maneuvering in dense habitats in G. montana, and wings with an intermediate design in L. verreauxi, L. cassini and Z. asiatica.

Uso del instrumento FINDRISK para identificar el riesgo de prediabetes y diabetes mellitus tipo 2 / Use of the FINDRISK questionnaire for prediabetes and type 2 diabetes screening

Objetivo: determinar el riesgo de desarrollar diabetes mellitus tipo 2 y prediabetes por medio del cuestionario FINDRISK en pacientes entre 35 y 75 años que asisten a consulta externa. Métodos: estudio descriptivo transversal, aplicando el cuestionario FINDRISK validado para Colombia. A aquellos con puntajes igual o mayor a 12 se les investigaron marcadores glicémicos y perfil lipídico. Con los datos obtenidos se realizó análisis univariado y de correspondencias múltiples. Resultados: de 796 participantes 11% (n= 88) presentaron prediabetes y 0,7% (n=6) diabetes, 36,8% (n=293) tuvieron un FINDRISK igual o mayor de 12, de éstos a 30% se le diagnosticó prediabetes y 2% diabetes; el 54,9% cursó con hipertensión, 50% con historia familiar de diabetes, 43% antecedentes de dislipidemia, 86% perímetro abdominal mayor de los rangos establecidos y dislipidemia en más de 50%. Conclusión: el cuestionario FINDRISK es una herramienta útil en la detección de estados prediabéticos y diabetes, favoreciendo el manejo temprano y la prevención de complicaciones. Además, aquellos con trastornos glicémicos y puntaje FINDRISK mayor o igual a 12 muestran tendencia a cursar con dislipidemia, lo que indica la necesidad del estudio metabólico completo.

Objective: to determine the risk for developing type 2 diabetes mellitus and prediabetes using the FINDRISC questionnaire in patients aged between 35 and 75 years at the outpatient clinic. Methods: a descriptive cross-sectional analysis applying the FINDRISC questionnaire for Colombia. Patients with a FINDRISC score of 12 or higher were studied measuring glycemic markers and lipid profile. Univariate and bivariate data analysis was used, as well as multiple correspondences. Results: out of 796 participants 11% (n= 88) had prediabetes and 0.7% (n=6) had diabetes, 36.8% (n=293) had a FINDRISC score equal or greater than 12, of these, 30% were diagnosed with prediabetes and 2% with diabetes; 54.9% had associated hypertension, 50% had family history for diabetes, 43% history of dyslipidemia, 86% had a waist circumference greater than the established values and dyslipidemia was present in more than 50%. Conclusion: the FINDRISC questionnaire is a useful screening tool for prediabetes and diabetes, favoring early treatment and the prevention of complications. Additionally, those with glycemic disorders and a FINDRISC score greater or equal to 12 showed a tendency to have associated dyslipidemia, which indicate the need to perform a comprehensive metabolic panel.

Morphological adaptations for relatively larger brains in hummingbird skulls.

A common allometric pattern called Haller's Rule states that small species have relatively larger brains and eyes than larger species of the same taxonomic group. This pattern imposes drastic structural changes and energetic costs on small species to produce and maintain a disproportionate amount of nervous tissue. Indeed, several studies have shown the significant metabolic costs of having relatively larger brains; however, little is known about the structural constraints and adaptations required for housing these relatively larger brains and eyes. Because hummingbirds include the smallest birds, they are ideal for exploring how small species evolve morphological adaptations for housing relatively larger brain and eyes. We here present results from a comparative study of hummingbirds and show that the smallest species have the lowest levels of ossification, the most compact braincases, and relatively larger eye sockets, but lower eye/head proportion, than larger species. In contrast to Passerines, skull ossification in hummingbirds correlates with body and brain size but not with age. Correlation of these skull traits with body size might represent adaptations to facilitate housing relatively larger brain and eyes, rather than just heterochronic effects related to change in body size. These structural changes in skull traits allow small animals to accommodate disproportionately larger brains and eyes without further increasing overall head size.

Dietary Nitrate from Beetroot Juice for Hypertension: A Systematic Review.

According to current therapeutic approaches, a nitrate-dietary supplementation with beetroot juice (BRJ) is postulated as a nutritional strategy that might help to control arterial blood pressure in healthy subjects, pre-hypertensive population, and even patients diagnosed and treated with drugs. In this sense, a systematic review of random clinical trials (RCTs) published from 2008 to 2018 from PubMed/MEDLINE, ScienceDirect, and manual searches was conducted to identify studies examining the relationship between BRJ and blood pressure. The specific inclusion criteria were: (1) RCTs; (2) trials that assessed only the BRJ intake with control group; and (3) trials that reported the effects of this intervention on blood pressure. The search identified 11 studies that met the inclusion criteria. This review was able to demonstrate that BRJ supplementation is a cost-effective strategy that might reduce blood pressure in different populations, probably through the nitrate/nitrite/nitric oxide (NO3-/NO2-/NO) pathway and secondary metabolites found in Beta vulgaris. This easily found and cheap dietary intervention could significantly decrease the risk of suffering cardiovascular events and, in doing so, would help to diminish the mortality rate associated to this pathology. Hence, BRJ supplementation should be promoted as a key component of a healthy lifestyle to control blood pressure in healthy and hypertensive individuals. However, several factors related to BRJ intake (e.g., gender, secondary metabolites present in B. vulgaris, etc.) should be studied more deeply.

[Hat anesthetic technique should we use in order to prevent alterations in the neuro development over the pediatric population?] / ¿Qué técnica anestésica debemos utilizar para la prevención de alteraciones del neurodesarrollo en la población pediátrica?

The decision to administer general anesthesia is childhood age remains controversial. East the issue has not only generated a high degree of concern in health professionals for Neonates and infants, but also, by the school age, being susceptible to alterations. during the consolidation process of earning and memory, where anesthetics They alter brain functioning, causing alterations in synaptogenesis and neurodegeneration in different areas such as. primary visual cortex, temporal cortices / sensory, the frontal cortex and the hippocampus. This is associated with some factors. of risk as the drugs and / or doses used for the procedure, exposure time, or own conditions of the patient.

La decisión de administrar anestesia general en la edad infantil sigue siendo controversial. Este tema no solo ha generado un alto grado de preocupación en los profesionales de la salud por los neonatos y lactantes, sino también, por la edad escolar, siendo susceptibles a alteraciones durante el proceso de consolidación del aprendizaje y memoria, donde los anestésicos alteran el funcionamiento cerebral, provocando alteraciónes en la sinaptogénesis y neurodegeneración en diferentes áreas como la corteza visual primaria, cortezas temporales / somato sensoriales, la corteza frontal y el hipocampo . Esto asociado a algunos factores de riesgo como los fármacos y/o dosis utilizadas para el procedimiento, tiempo de exposición, o condiciones propias del paciente.

Effect of fragmentation on the Costa Rican dry forest avifauna.

Deforestation and changes in land use have reduced the tropical dry forest to isolated forest patches in northwestern Costa Rica. We examined the effect of patch area and length of the dry season on nestedness of the entire avian community, forest fragment assemblages, and species occupancy across fragments for the entire native avifauna, and for a subset of forest dependent species. Species richness was independent of both fragment area and distance between fragments. Similarity in bird community composition between patches was related to habitat structure; fragments with similar forest structure have more similar avian assemblages. Size of forest patches influenced nestedness of the bird community and species occupancy, but not nestedness of assemblages across patches in northwestern Costa Rican avifauna. Forest dependent species (species that require large tracts of mature forest) and assemblages of these species were nested within patches ordered by a gradient of seasonality, and only occupancy of species was nested by area of patches. Thus, forest patches with a shorter dry season include more forest dependent species.

Estudio multicéntrico sobre efectividad de control del dolor postquirúrgico en pacientes de Colombia / Multicenter study on effectiveness of controlling postoperative pain in Colombian patients

Introduction: Postoperative pain can cause complications, prolonged hospital stays and has often been poorly assessed. Objectives: To determine the intensity of pain in patients operated on using a visual analog scale (VAS) and to identify variables associated with a lack of control in seven cities in Colombia. Materials and methods: Cross-sectional study in patients older than 18 years between 1st January and 30th September, 2014 in eight clinics across Colombia. The intensity of postoperative pain was assessed with a VAS 4h after the procedure. Socio-demographic, clinical and pharmacological variables were considered. Multivariate analysis was done using SPSS 22.0. Results: A total of 1015 patients were evaluated. The mean age was 42.5 ± 17.1 years, and 63.8% were female. The mean pain level was 38.8 ± 19.4 mm, with a total of 600 (59.1% of patients) without pain control. Dipyrone was the most used analgesic, followed by morphine and tramadol. Being treated at Nuestra Señora del Rosario Clinic in Ibagué (OR: 1.65; 95%CI: 1.096-2.479; p = 0.016), coming from urban areas (OR: 1.71; 95%CI: 1.186-2.463; p = 0.005), being subjected to major surgery (OR: 2.02; 95%CI: 1.316-3.109; p = 0.001), emergency surgery (OR: 1.46; 95%CI: 1.065-2.013; p = 0.019), and suffering nausea (OR: 2.05; 95%CI: 1.341-3.118; p = 0.001) were statistically associated with no pain control. Conclusion: None of the clinics had acceptable percentages of patients with pain controlled 4 h after surgery. Clinical practice guides should be incorporated, institutional policies should be defined, health personnel should be trained, and the outcomes of the interventions should be evaluated.

Introducción: El dolor postoperatorio puede causar complicaciones, prolongar la estancia hospitalaria y frecuentemente es mal valorado. Objetivos: Determinar la intensidad del dolor en pacientes intervenidos quirúrgicamente mediante una escala visual analógica (EVA) y determinar las variables asociadas a la falta de control en siete ciudades de Colombia. Materiales y métodos: Estudio de corte transversal en pacientes mayores de 18 años entre el 1 de enero y 30 de septiembre del año 2014 en 8 clínicas de Colombia. Se valoró la intensidad del dolor postoperatorio mediante EVA a las 4 horas del procedimiento. Se consideraron variables sociodemográficas, clínicas y farmacológicas. Se hizo análisis multivariado con SPSS 22.0. Resultados: Se evaluó un total de 1015 pacientes, con edad promedio 42,5±17,1 años, y 63,8% eran mujeres. La media del nivel de dolor fue 38,8±19,4 mm, con un total de 600 (59,1% de pacientes) sin control del dolor. Dipirona fue el analgésico más empleado, seguido de tramadol y morfina. Ser tratado en la clínica Nuestra Señora del Rosario de Ibagué (OR:1,65; IC95%:1,096-2,479; p = 0,016), provenir de área urbana (OR:1,71; IC95%:1,186-2,463; p = 0,005), ser sometido a cirugía mayor (OR:2,02; IC95%:1,316-3,109; p = 0,001), de urgencia (OR:1,46; IC95%:1,065-2,013; p = 0,019), y sufrir náuseas (OR:2,05; IC95%:1,341-3,118; p = 0,001) se asociaron estadísticamente con no controlar el dolor. Conclusión: En ninguna de las clínicas había porcentajes aceptables de pacientes con dolor controlado a las 4 horas después de la cirugía. Se deben incorporar guías de práctica clínica, definir políticas institucionales, capacitar al personal sanitario y evaluar resultados de las intervenciones.

Impacto de un programa personalizado de educación en pacientes diabéticos tipo 2 / Impact of a personalized education program in type 2 diabetic patients / Impact of a personalized education program in type 2 diabetic patients

Los programas de educación en diabetes han logrado demostrar el beneficio en el control metabólico. Objetivo: evaluar el impacto de un programa personalizado de educación para pacientes diabéticos tipo 2 en seguimiento a seis meses, en el Hospital de San José. Bogotá. Metodología: se condujo un estudio descriptivo retrospectivo a partir de los registros de pacientes adultos con diabetes tipo 2, que ingresaron al programa educativo entre enero 2011 y febrero 2012. Se realizaron intervenciones personalizadas y grupales con un equipo multidisciplinario liderado por médico endocrinólogo. Se compara el control metabólico al ingreso al programa y en el seguimiento al sexto mes según las metas propuestas por la ADA y ATP III. Resultados: ingresaron al programa 115 pacientes, edad promedio de 61.1 años (DE 8.7); tiempo mediano de diagnóstico 10.5 años (RIQ 4-17.5), 43.9% de los hombres y 54% de las mujeres tenían más de 10 años de evolución. El 33.3% de los hombres y 55.4% mujeres presentaban obesidad. Los pacientes en metas de hemoglobina glicosilada A1c (HbA1c) en el seguimiento a seis meses, pasó de 10.4% al ingreso a 51%, colesterol LDL de 41.9 a 47.1%, HDL de 46.3 a 62.5% y triglicéridos de 25.6 a 50%. Las pérdidas en el seguimiento fueron de 48.9%. Se documentó asociación entre el tiempo de evolución de la enfermedad (≤ 5 años) y las metas de HbA1c (p 0.005). Conclusión: la experiencia en seguimiento a corto plazo de un programa educativo personalizado guiado por médico endocrinólogo y un equipo multidisciplinario favorece el control metabólico en pacientes diabéticos.

The diabetes education programs have succeeded in demonstrating benefit in metabolic control. Objective: to evaluate the impact of a personalized education program for type 2 diabetic patients at 6 months follow-up, in the Hospital de San José, Bogotá. Methodology: a retrospective descriptive study was conducted from records of adult patients with type 2 diabetes who were admitted to the educational program between January 2011 and February 2012. Personalized and group interventions conducted by a multidisciplinary team led by endocrinologist were realized. The metabolic control at program entry and at six months follow-up according to the goals set by the ADA and ATP III is compared. Results: 115 patients were admitted to the program; average age 61.1 years (SD 8.7); median time from diagnosis 10.5 years (IQR 4-17.5), 43.9% of men and 54% of women were over 10 years of evolution. 33.3% of men and 55.4% women were obese. Patients in goals of glycosylated hemoglobin A1c (HbA1c) in the 6-month follow-up went from10.4% on admission to 51%, LDL cholesterol from 41.9% to 47.1%, HDL from 46.3% to 62.5%, and triglycerides from to 25.6% 50%. Losses during follow-up were 48.9%. Association between duration of disease (= 5 years) and goals of HbA1c (p 0.005) was documented. Conclusion: the experience in short-term follow-up of a personalized educational program led by endocrinologist and a multidisciplinary team favors metabolic control in diabetic patients.

Impacto económico de la desnutrición crónica, aguda y global en el Perú / Economic impact of chronic, acute and global malnutrition in Peru

Objetivos. Estimar el impacto económico de la desnutrición crónica, aguda y global en el Perú. Materiales y métodos. El presente estudio estimó el impacto económico de la desnutrición infantil en dos horizontes temporales (incidental retrospectiva y prospectiva) para el año 2011, considerando los costos asociados a la desnutrición en salud, educación y productividad para la economía peruana. Se combinó la información proveniente de la Encuesta Demográfica de Salud Familiar, la Encuesta Nacional de Hogares, el Censo de Población y Vivienda de 2007 y la información presupuestal pública, así como estimados de los riesgos a los que un niño está expuesto a causa de la desnutrición que padece en sus primeros años de vida. Resultados. Se halló que a nivel nacional en la perspectiva retrospectiva el costo de la desnutrición infantil para el 2011, fue de 10 999 millones de soles, equivalentes al 2,2% del PBI de ese mismo año. Los costos prospectivos a nivel nacional, de quienes al 2011 tienen entre 0 y 59 meses, alcanzaron los 4505 millones de nuevos soles y representan el 0,9% del PBI del año 2011. La mayor parte de los costos provienen de las pérdidas de productividad en ambos casos. Además, la desnutrición afecta mucho más a la sierra y selva peruana. Conclusiones. El impacto económico de la desnutrición infantil representa una parte significativa del PBI, por lo que es necesario continuar invirtiendo equitativamente en su prevención con intervenciones de probada efectividad.

Objectives. To estimate the economic impact of chronic, acute and global malnutrition in Peru. Materials and methods. This study, through an econometric model, estimated the economic impact of child malnutrition in two time horizons (incidental retrospective and prospective) during 2011, considering malnutrition-associated costs of health, education and productivity for the Peruvian economy. Information collected is a combination of data coming from the Demographic Survey of Family Health, the National Survey of Homes, the 2007 Census of Population and Housing, and public budget information, as well as estimates of risks a child is exposed to due to malnutrition during their first years of life. Results. Nationwide it was found that in the perspective retrospective, the cost of child malnutrition in 2011 was 10,999 million soles, which was equal to 2.2% of GDP for that same year. Prospective costs nationwide, of those who by 2011 were 0 to 59 months, reached 4,505 million soles and represented 0.9% of GDP in 2011. Most cases stem from losses of productivity in both cases. Moreover, malnutrition affects much more both the Andes and jungle regions. Conclusions. The economic impact of child malnutrition represents a significant percentage of GDP, reason for which it is necessary to continue investing equitably in its prevention through participation with proven efficiency.

[Economic impact of chronic, acute and global malnutrition in Peru]. / Impacto económico de la desnutrición crónica, aguda y global en el Perú

OBJECTIVES: To estimate the economic impact of chronic, acute and global malnutrition in Peru. MATERIALS AND METHODS: This study, through an econometric model, estimated the economic impact of child malnutrition in two time horizons (incidental retrospective and prospective) during 2011, considering malnutrition-associated costs of health, education and productivity for the Peruvian economy. Information collected is a combination of data coming from the Demographic Survey of Family Health, the National Survey of Homes, the 2007 Census of Population and Housing, and public budget information, as well as estimates of risks a child is exposed to due to malnutrition during their first years of life. RESULTS: Nationwide it was found that in the perspective retrospective, the cost of child malnutrition in 2011 was 10,999 million soles, which was equal to 2.2% of GDP for that same year. Prospective costs nationwide, of those who by 2011 were 0 to 59 months, reached 4,505 million soles and represented 0.9% of GDP in 2011. Most cases stem from losses of productivity in both cases. Moreover, malnutrition affects much more both the Andes and jungle regions. CONCLUSIONS: The economic impact of child malnutrition represents a significant percentage of GDP, reason for which it is necessary to continue investing equitably in its prevention through participation with proven efficiency.