Distressing psychotic-like experiences, cognitive functioning and early developmental markers in clinically referred young people aged 8-18 years.

PURPOSE: Neurocognitive difficulties and early childhood speech/motor delays are well documented amongst older adolescents and young adults considered at risk for psychosis-spectrum diagnoses. We aimed to test associations between unusual or psychotic-like experiences (PLEs), co-occurring distress/emotional symptoms, current cognitive functioning and developmental delays/difficulties in young people (aged 8-18 years) referred to Child and Adolescent Mental Health Services in South London, UK. METHODS: Study 1 examined receptive language, verbal learning and caregiver-reported speech and motor delays/difficulties in a sample of 101 clinically-referred children aged 8-14 years, comparing those reporting no PLEs (n = 19), PLEs without distress (n = 16), and PLEs with distress (n = 66). Study 2 tested associations of severity of distressing PLEs with vocabulary, perceptual reasoning, word reading and developmental delays/difficulties in a second sample of 122 adolescents aged 12-18 years with distressing PLEs. RESULTS: In Study 1, children with distressing PLEs had lower receptive language and delayed recall and higher rates of developmental delays/difficulties than the no-PLE and non-distressing PLE groups (F values: 2.3-2.8; p values: < 0.005). Receptive language (ß = 0.24, p = 0.03) and delayed recall (ß = - 0.17, p = 0.02) predicted PLE distress severity. In Study 2, the cognitive-developmental variables did not significantly predict PLE distress severity (ß values = 0.01-0.22, p values: > 0.05). CONCLUSION: Findings may be consistent with a cognitive-developmental model relating distressing PLEs in youth with difficulties in cognitive functioning. This highlights the potential utility of adjunctive cognitive strategies which target mechanisms associated with PLE distress. These could be included in cognitive-behavioural interventions offered prior to the development of an at-risk mental state in mental health, educational or public health settings.

Predictors and moderators of burden of care and emotional distress in first-episode psychosis caregivers: results from the GET UP pragmatic cluster randomised controlled trial.

AIMS: First-episode psychosis (FEP) is a major life event and can have an adverse impact on the diagnosed individual and their families. The importance of intervening early and providing optimal treatments is widely acknowledged. In comparison to patient groups, literature is scarce on identifying treatment predictors and moderators of caregiver outcomes. This study aimed to identify pre-treatment characteristics predicting and/or moderating carer outcomes, based on data from a multi-element psychosocial intervention to FEP patients and carers (GET-UP PIANO trial). METHODS: Carer demography, type of family relationship, patient contact hours, pre-treatment carer burden, patient perceptions of parental caregiving and expressed emotion (EE) were selected, a priori, as potential predictors/moderators of carer burden and emotional distress at 9 months post treatment. Outcomes were analysed separately in mixed-effects random regression models. RESULTS: Analyses were performed on 260 carers. Only patient perceptions of early maternal criticism predicted reports of lower carer burden at follow-up. However, multiple imputation analysis failed to confirm this result. For treatment moderators: higher levels of carer burden at baseline yielded greater reductions in carer emotional distress at follow-up in the experimental group compared with treatment as usual (TAU). Higher levels of perceived EE moderated greater reductions in carer reports of tension in experimental group, compared with TAU, at follow-up. In younger caregivers (<51 years old), there were greater reductions in levels of worry during the baseline to follow-up period, within the experimental group compared with TAU. CONCLUSION: The study failed to identify significant treatment predictors of FEP carer outcomes. However, our preliminary findings suggest that optimal treatment outcomes for carers at first episode might be moderated by younger carer age, and carers reporting higher baseline levels of burden, and where patients perceive higher levels of negative effect from caregivers.

Relationship between posttraumatic stress symptoms, caregiving response, and parent mental health in youth exposed to single incident trauma.

BACKGROUND: Family factors may alter the risk of developing posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) or depression in young people after a traumatic event, but it is not clear which modifiable family variables can be addressed in psychological therapies. This study examined the relationships between family factors (Expressed Emotion [EE] and family accommodation) and psychopathology (posttraumatic stress symptoms; PTSS) in young people following a single incident trauma. Potential mediators of these relationships were also investigated. METHOD: Sixty-six parent-child dyads (aged 8-17 years) were assessed within one month of attending an Emergency Department. Self-reported PTSS and perceived EE were assessed in young people. Parents' own PTSS, mood symptoms, EE, and accommodating behaviours were also assessed. RESULTS: Cross-sectional analyses revealed that young person-perceived EE, parent-reported emotional over involvement (EOI) and accommodation behaviours significantly predicted higher PTSS in young people. The stress experienced as a consequence of EE mediated the relationship between young person-perceived EOI and PTSS in young people. Parental PTSS and anxiety were positively correlated with EOI and accommodation. Parental PTSS was not significantly associated with symptoms in young people. CONCLUSIONS: The results support the hypothesis that EE and accommodation are positively associated with PTSS in young people in the month following a potentially traumatic event. Understanding the child in the context of their family environment and relationships offers an important framework for making sense of and facilitating adaptive adjustment following a traumatic event.

Caring for a relative with delusional beliefs: a qualitative exploration.

WHAT IS KNOWN ON THE SUBJECT?: Delusions are common experiences in psychosis and this is reflected in the number of studies focused on improving our understanding of their development, impact, and treatments. Many service users with psychosis are in informal caregiving relationships and carers can play an instrumental role in the recovery process. There remains a lack of knowledge and understanding about carer experiences and how they cope when their relative's delusions involve them or close others. WHAT THIS PAPER ADDS TO EXISTING KNOWLEDGE?: Data drawn from five individual carer interviews, which were subject to interpretative phenomenological analysis, identified the importance of six key themes. In addition to a carer's exposure to their relative's illness symptoms and a reported lack of understanding about their relative's delusions, was a fear of delusion-driven behaviours, and the carer's attempt to conceal the true extent of their caregiving challenges to others. Carers' relationships were fractured and their coping was best described as an ongoing process, mainly developed through trial and error. It extends our understanding of important issues faced by a subgroup of carers and facilitates discussion beyond their levels of stress and burden. WHAT ARE THE IMPLICATIONS FOR PRACTICE?: The study, with its limitations, indicates some carers may live in fear of harm from their relatives but also be reluctant to disclose to others the full story of what they are coping with. Health professionals must routinely assess for risks that informal carers may be exposed to as part of their role, and offer tailored support and interventions. ABSTRACT: Background In recent years, there has been a gradual shift towards the study of individual symptom presentations in psychosis, this is particularly found in studies of delusional beliefs. However, the literature remains sparse on informal caregiver experiences of individual symptoms. Aim The study sought to investigate carer experiences of supporting a relative with delusional beliefs, which involve family members. Methods Semi-structured interviews were undertaken with five caregivers and subject to interpretative phenomenological analysis. Results Interviews yielded six superordinate themes highlighting issues concerning a carer's exposure to symptoms of illness; lack of understanding about their relatives' delusional beliefs; concerns over coming to harm from their relative: efforts made by the carer to conceal their relative's delusional beliefs and their consequences; fractured relationships, and a long process of learning how to best cope. Conclusion Caring for a relative with psychosis who experiences delusional beliefs about the carer and family members can be challenging. The results underscore the importance of providing a programme of support to meet the varied needs of informal carers with an explicit aim of assisting carers in their day-to-day problem solving. It should also help to address issues carers may have about causality, including beliefs about self-blame, and identifying effective coping strategies.

Measuring attachment and parental bonding in psychosis and its clinical implications.

BACKGROUND: Attachment theory proposes that psychological functioning and affect regulations are influenced by the attachment we form with others. Early relationships with parents or caregivers lay the foundations for attachment styles. These styles are proposed to influence how we relate to others during our life can be modified by the relationships and events we experience in our lifespan. A secure attachment style is associated with a capacity to manage distress, comfort with autonomy and the ability to form relationships with others, whereas insecure attachment can lead to dysfunctional relationships, emotional and behaviour avoidance. Attachment theory provides a useful framework to inform our understanding of relationship difficulties in people with psychosis. This paper aims to complement recent systematic reviews by providing an overview of attachment theory, its application to psychosis, including an understanding of measurement issues and the clinical implications offered. METHOD: A narrative review was completed of the measures of attachment and parental bonding in psychosis. Its clinical implications are also discussed. The paper also explores the link between insecure attachment styles and illness course, social functioning and symptomatology. The following questions are addressed: What are the key attachment measures that have been used within the attachment and psychosis literature? What are the results of studies that have measured attachment or parental bonding in psychosis and what clinical implications can we derive from it? What are some of the key questions for future research from these findings in relation to the onset of psychosis research field? RESULTS: The most commonly used measures of attachment in psychosis research are reviewed. Self-report questionnaires and semi-structured interviews have mainly been used to examine attachment styles in adult samples and in recent years comprise a measure specifically developed for a psychosis group. The review suggests that insecure attachment styles are common in psychosis samples. Key relationships were observed between insecure, avoidant and anxious attachment styles and psychosis development, expression and long-term outcome. CONCLUSIONS: Attachment theory can provide a useful framework to facilitate our understanding of interpersonal difficulties in psychosis that may predate its onset and impact on observed variability in outcomes, including treatment engagement. Greater attention should be given to the assessment of attachment needs and to the development of interventions that seek to compensate for these difficulties. However, further investigations are required on specifying the exact mechanisms by which specific attachment styles impact on the development of psychosis and its course.

Low intensity cognitive behavioural therapy for psychosis: a pilot study.

BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVES: The dissemination and delivery of psychological therapies for people with psychosis has been limited by workforce and organisational factors. 'Low Intensity' (LI) delivery, whereby staff are trained to deliver brief, focused, manualised interventions, may be one way of improving access. In this study, we piloted a new LI intervention specifically for people with psychosis, aimed at helping people to reach a personal recovery goal, whilst targeting anxious avoidance or depression-related inactivity. Frontline mental health workers were trained to deliver the intervention. We report here on the impact of the intervention on therapeutic outcomes. METHODS: Twelve people with psychosis and either anxious avoidance or low mood, who wanted to work towards a personal goal, completed the intervention and a battery of assessments of mood, functioning and psychotic symptoms. RESULTS: Eleven out of the twelve participants achieved their personal goals. The results of a series of Friedman K related sample tests revealed significant improvements in depression, clinical distress, activity levels, negative symptoms and delusions across the three time points, and no change in hallucinations, or anxious avoidance. Staff and participant satisfaction was high. LIMITATIONS: The study is a small uncontrolled pilot study. Outcomes should therefore be interpreted with caution, pending replication. CONCLUSIONS: The new LI intervention shows preliminary evidence of effectiveness and is a feasible model of therapy delivery for people with psychosis. The results suggest that frontline mental health workers can be trained relatively easily to deliver the intervention. A larger, randomised controlled trial is warranted to determine the effectiveness of the intervention and training programme.

Effective elements of cognitive behaviour therapy for psychosis: results of a novel type of subgroup analysis based on principal stratification.

BACKGROUND: Meta-analyses show that cognitive behaviour therapy for psychosis (CBT-P) improves distressing positive symptoms. However, it is a complex intervention involving a range of techniques. No previous study has assessed the delivery of the different elements of treatment and their effect on outcome. Our aim was to assess the differential effect of type of treatment delivered on the effectiveness of CBT-P, using novel statistical methodology. METHOD: The Psychological Prevention of Relapse in Psychosis (PRP) trial was a multi-centre randomized controlled trial (RCT) that compared CBT-P with treatment as usual (TAU). Therapy was manualized, and detailed evaluations of therapy delivery and client engagement were made. Follow-up assessments were made at 12 and 24 months. In a planned analysis, we applied principal stratification (involving structural equation modelling with finite mixtures) to estimate intention-to-treat (ITT) effects for subgroups of participants, defined by qualitative and quantitative differences in receipt of therapy, while maintaining the constraints of randomization. RESULTS: Consistent delivery of full therapy, including specific cognitive and behavioural techniques, was associated with clinically and statistically significant increases in months in remission, and decreases in psychotic and affective symptoms. Delivery of partial therapy involving engagement and assessment was not effective. CONCLUSIONS: Our analyses suggest that CBT-P is of significant benefit on multiple outcomes to patients able to engage in the full range of therapy procedures. The novel statistical methods illustrated in this report have general application to the evaluation of heterogeneity in the effects of treatment.

Family interventions in early psychosis: specificity and effectiveness.

The first episode of psychosis frequently occurs during adolescence and early adulthood, and is associated with high levels of trauma, affective disturbance and suicide. The social networks of service users often decrease significantly following the first onset, although many will remain in close contact with some family members particularly during the early phases. However, the negative impact of psychosis on families and their relationship with the identified service user are well documented. Family intervention is a recommended and evidence-based treatment in later psychosis. In this paper, we review the literature on family interventions in early psychosis in the context of new evidence for its efficacy and its routine incorporation in early intervention services for psychosis.

Implementing the NICE guideline for schizophrenia recommendations for psychological therapies: a qualitative analysis of the attitudes of CMHT staff.

OBJECTIVES: Despite national guidelines recommending cognitive-behavioural therapy (CBT) and family intervention (FI) in the treatment of schizophrenia, levels of implementation in routine care remain low. The present study investigates attitudinal factors amongst community mental health team (CMHT) staff affecting guideline implementation. DESIGN: CMHTs were audited to measure the capacity and delivery of CBT and FI, and semi-structured interviews were conducted with staff from the teams. Methods. Four CMHTs were audited, and five care coordinators from each team were interviewed. A purposive approach to sampling was used to represent the range of professional training of care coordinating staff. Data were analysed using thematic content analysis. RESULTS: Positive views towards guidelines were evident, although tempered by specific implementation issues. Employing simple psychological interventions and approaches as part of the care coordinating role also emerged as highly valued by staff. Severe workload, time pressure and the need for specialist staff were crucial barriers to implementation. Pessimistic views of recovery for clients with psychosis were also apparent and may affect implementation. CONCLUSIONS: Staff attitudes and knowledge are an important area of research when examining guideline implementation and require further study. Key themes that have emerged could inform future training agendas and should be considered when developing guideline implementation strategies for the updated 2009 guidelines.