The Threshold Photoelectron Spectrum of Fulvenone: A Reactive Ketene Derivative in Lignin Valorization.

Unveiling reaction mechanisms by isomer-selective detection of reactive intermediates requires advanced spectroscopic knowledge. We study the photoionization of fulvenone (c-C5 H4 =C=O), a reactive ketene species relevant in catalytic pyrolysis of lignin, which was generated by pyrolysis of 2-methoxy acetophenone. The high-resolution threshold photoelectron spectrum (TPES) with vacuum ultraviolet synchrotron radiation revealed well-resolved vibrational transitions, assigned to ring deformation modes of the cyclopentadiene moiety. The adiabatic ionization energy was determined to be 8.25±0.01 eV and is assigned to the X˜+2 A2 ← X˜1 A1 transition. A broad and featureless band arising at 9 eV is associated with the A˜+2 B1 ← X˜1 A1 excitation. A conical intersection is responsible for the ultrafast relaxation of the fulvenone cation from the A˜+ into the X˜+ state resulting in a featureless and lifetime broadened band. These insights will increase the detection capabilities for fulvenone and thereby help to elucidate reaction mechanisms in lignin catalytic pyrolysis.

Thermal Decompositions of the Lignin Model Compounds: Salicylaldehyde and Catechol.

The nascent steps in the pyrolysis of the lignin components salicylaldehyde ( o-HOC6H4CHO) and catechol ( o-HOC6H4OH) were studied in a set of heated microreactors. The microreactors are small (roughly 1 mm ID × 3 cm long); transit times through the reactors are about 100 µs. Temperatures in the microreactors can be as high as 1600 K, and pressures are typically a few hundred torr. The products of pyrolysis are identified by a combination of photoionization mass spectrometry, photoelectron photoion concidence mass spectroscopy, and matrix isolation infrared spectroscopy. The main pathway by which salicylaldehyde decomposes is a concerted fragmentation: o-HOC6H4CHO (+ M) → H2 + CO + C5H4═C═O (fulveneketene). At temperatures above 1300 K, fulveneketene loses CO to yield a mixture of HC≡C-C≡C-CH3, HC≡C-CH2-C≡CH, and HC≡C-CH═C═CH2. These alkynes decompose to a mixture of radicals (HC≡C-C≡C-CH2 and HC≡C-CH-C≡CH) and H atoms. H-atom chain reactions convert salicylaldehyde to phenol: o-HOC6H4CHO + H → C6H5OH + CO + H. Catechol has similar chemistry to salicylaldehyde. Electrocyclic fragmentation produces water and fulveneketene: o-HOC6H4OH (+ M) → H2O + C5H4═C═O. These findings have implications for the pyrolysis of lignin itself.

The thermal decomposition of the benzyl radical in a heated micro-reactor. I. Experimental findings.

The pyrolysis of the benzyl radical has been studied in a set of heated micro-reactors. A combination of photoionization mass spectrometry (PIMS) and matrix isolation infrared (IR) spectroscopy has been used to identify the decomposition products. Both benzyl bromide and ethyl benzene have been used as precursors of the parent species, C6H5CH2, as well as a set of isotopically labeled radicals: C6H5CD2, C6D5CH2, and C6H5 (13)CH2. The combination of PIMS and IR spectroscopy has been used to identify the earliest pyrolysis products from benzyl radical as: C5H4=C=CH2, H atom, C5H4-C ≡ CH, C5H5, HCCCH2, and HC ≡ CH. Pyrolysis of the C6H5CD2, C6D5CH2, and C6H5 (13)CH2 benzyl radicals produces a set of methyl radicals, cyclopentadienyl radicals, and benzynes that are not predicted by a fulvenallene pathway. Explicit PIMS searches for the cycloheptatrienyl radical were unsuccessful, there is no evidence for the isomerization of benzyl and cycloheptatrienyl radicals: C6H5CH2⇋C7H7. These labeling studies suggest that there must be other thermal decomposition routes for the C6H5CH2 radical that differ from the fulvenallene pathway.

Pyrolysis of Cyclopentadienone: Mechanistic Insights from a Direct Measurement of Product Branching Ratios.

The thermal decomposition of cyclopentadienone (C5H4═O) has been studied in a flash pyrolysis continuous flow microreactor. Passing dilute samples of o-phenylene sulfite (C6H4O2SO) in He through the microreactor at elevated temperatures yields a relatively clean source of C5H4═O. The pyrolysis of C5H4═O was investigated over the temperature range 1000-2000 K. Below 1600 K, we have identified two decomposition channels: (1) C5H4═O (+ M) → CO + HC≡C-CH═CH2 and (2) C5H4═O (+ M) → CO + HC≡CH + HC≡CH. There is no evidence of radical or H atom chain reactions. To establish the thermochemistry for the pyrolysis of cyclopentadienone, ab initio electronic structure calculations (AE-CCSD(T)/aug-cc-pCVQZ//AE-CCSD(T)/cc-pVQZ and anharmonic FC-CCSD(T)/ANO1 ZPEs) were used to find ΔfH0(C5H4═O) to be 16 ± 1 kcal mol(-1) and ΔfH0(CH2═CH-C≡CH) to be 71 ± 1 kcal mol(-1). The calculations predict the reaction enthalpies ΔrxnH0(1) to be 28 ± 1 kcal mol(-1) (ΔrxnH298(1) is 30 ± 1 kcal mol(-1)) and ΔrxnH0(2) to be 66 ± 1 kcal mol(-1) (ΔrxnH298(2) is 69 ± 1 kcal mol(-1)). Following pyrolysis of C5H4═O, photoionization mass spectrometry was used to measure the relative concentrations of HCC-CHCH2 and HCCH. Reaction 1 dominates at low pyrolysis temperatures (1000-1400 K). At temperatures above 1400 K, reaction 2 becomes the dominant channel. We have used the product branching ratios over the temperature range 1000-1600 K to extract the ratios of unimolecular rate coefficients for reactions 1 and 2 . If Arrhenius expressions are used, the difference of activation energies for reactions 1 and 2 , E2 - E1, is found to be 16 ± 1 kcal mol(-1) and the ratio of the pre-exponential factors, A2/A1, is 7.0 ± 0.3.

Unimolecular thermal decomposition of dimethoxybenzenes.

The unimolecular thermal decomposition mechanisms of o-, m-, and p-dimethoxybenzene (CH3O-C6H4-OCH3) have been studied using a high temperature, microtubular (µtubular) SiC reactor with a residence time of 100 µs. Product detection was carried out using single photon ionization (SPI, 10.487 eV) and resonance enhanced multiphoton ionization (REMPI) time-of-flight mass spectrometry and matrix infrared absorption spectroscopy from 400 K to 1600 K. The initial pyrolytic step for each isomer is methoxy bond homolysis to eliminate methyl radical. Subsequent thermolysis is unique for each isomer. In the case of o-CH3O-C6H4-OCH3, intramolecular H-transfer dominates leading to the formation of o-hydroxybenzaldehyde (o-HO-C6H4-CHO) and phenol (C6H5OH). Para-CH3O-C6H4-OCH3 immediately breaks the second methoxy bond to form p-benzoquinone, which decomposes further to cyclopentadienone (C5H4=O). Finally, the m-CH3O-C6H4-OCH3 isomer will predominantly follow a ring-reduction/CO-elimination mechanism to form C5H4=O. Electronic structure calculations and transition state theory are used to confirm mechanisms and comment on kinetics. Implications for lignin pyrolysis are discussed.

Polarized matrix infrared spectra of cyclopentadienone: observations, calculations, and assignment for an important intermediate in combustion and biomass pyrolysis.

A detailed vibrational analysis of the infrared spectra of cyclopentadienone (C5H4═O) in rare gas matrices has been carried out. Ab initio coupled-cluster anharmonic force field calculations were used to guide the assignments. Flash pyrolysis of o-phenylene sulfite (C6H4O2SO) was used to provide a molecular beam of C5H4═O entrained in a rare gas carrier. The beam was interrogated with time-of-flight photoionization mass spectrometry (PIMS), confirming the clean, intense production of C5H4═O. Matrix isolation infrared spectroscopy coupled with 355 nm polarized UV for photoorientation and linear dichroism experiments was used to determine the symmetries of the vibrations. Cyclopentadienone has 24 fundamental vibrational modes, Γvib = 9a1 ⊕ 3a2 ⊕ 4b1 ⊕ 8b2. Using vibrational perturbation theory and a deperturbation-diagonalization method, we report assignments of the following fundamental modes (cm(-1)) in a 4 K neon matrix: the a1 modes of X̃ (1)A1 C5H4═O are found to be ν1 = 3107, ν2 = (3100, 3099), ν3 = 1735, ν5 = 1333, ν7 = 952, ν8 = 843, and ν9 = 651; the inferred a2 modes are ν10 = 933, and ν11 = 722; the b1 modes are ν13 = 932, ν14 = 822, and ν15 = 629; the b2 fundamentals are ν17 = 3143, ν18 = (3078, 3076) ν19 = (1601 or 1595), ν20 = 1283, ν21 = 1138, ν22 = 1066, ν23 = 738, and ν24 = 458. The modes ν4 and ν6 were too weak to be detected, ν12 is dipole-forbidden and its position cannot be inferred from combination and overtone bands, and ν16 is below our detection range (<400 cm(-1)). Additional features were observed and compared to anharmonic calculations, assigned as two quantum transitions, and used to assign some of the weak and infrared inactive fundamental vibrations.

Chirped-Pulse Fourier Transform Microwave Spectroscopy Coupled with a Flash Pyrolysis Microreactor: Structural Determination of the Reactive Intermediate Cyclopentadienone.

Chirped-pulse Fourier transform microwave spectroscopy (CP-FTMW) is combined with a flash pyrolysis (hyperthermal) microreactor as a novel method to investigate the molecular structure of cyclopentadienone (C5H4═O), a key reactive intermediate in biomass decomposition and aromatic oxidation. Samples of C5H4═O were generated cleanly from the pyrolysis of o-phenylene sulfite and cooled in a supersonic expansion. The (13)C isotopic species were observed in natural abundance in both C5H4═O and in C5D4═O samples, allowing precise measurement of the heavy atom positions in C5H4═O. The eight isotopomers include: C5H4═O, C5D4═O, and the singly (13)C isotopomers with (13)C substitution at the C1, C2, and C3 positions. Microwave spectra were interpreted by CCSD(T) ab initio electronic structure calculations and an re molecular structure for C5H4═O was found. Comparisons of the structure of this "anti-aromatic" molecule are made with those of comparable organic molecules, and it is concluded that the disfavoring of the "anti-aromatic" zwitterionic resonance structure is consistent with a more pronounced C═C/C-C bond alternation.

Biomass pyrolysis: thermal decomposition mechanisms of furfural and benzaldehyde.

The thermal decompositions of furfural and benzaldehyde have been studied in a heated microtubular flow reactor. The pyrolysis experiments were carried out by passing a dilute mixture of the aromatic aldehydes (roughly 0.1%-1%) entrained in a stream of buffer gas (either He or Ar) through a pulsed, heated SiC reactor that is 2-3 cm long and 1 mm in diameter. Typical pressures in the reactor are 75-150 Torr with the SiC tube wall temperature in the range of 1200-1800 K. Characteristic residence times in the reactor are 100-200 µsec after which the gas mixture emerges as a skimmed molecular beam at a pressure of approximately 10 µTorr. Products were detected using matrix infrared absorption spectroscopy, 118.2 nm (10.487 eV) photoionization mass spectroscopy and resonance enhanced multiphoton ionization. The initial steps in the thermal decomposition of furfural and benzaldehyde have been identified. Furfural undergoes unimolecular decomposition to furan + CO: C4H3O-CHO (+ M) → CO + C4H4O. Sequential decomposition of furan leads to the production of HC≡CH, CH2CO, CH3C≡CH, CO, HCCCH2, and H atoms. In contrast, benzaldehyde resists decomposition until higher temperatures when it fragments to phenyl radical plus H atoms and CO: C6H5CHO (+ M) → C6H5CO + H → C6H5 + CO + H. The H atoms trigger a chain reaction by attacking C6H5CHO: H + C6H5CHO → [C6H6CHO]* → C6H6 + CO + H. The net result is the decomposition of benzaldehyde to produce benzene and CO.

Increase in hybridization rates with oligodeoxyribonucleotides containing locked nucleic acids.

Locked nucleic acids (LNAs) incorporated into either stable single stranded oligonucleotides containing tetraloops or their complements have been found to increase second order hybridization rate constants by an order of magnitude compared to the all-DNA hybridization rate constants. Model sequences composed of 20 bases in length that can form hairpins due to a stable GAAA tetraloop were used where LNAs were substituted for the nucleotides in the loop, stem, or end regions of the strand and in the complementary strand. Substitution of the LNAs to the loop predictably raised the melting temperatures of the duplex however, the hybridization rates between the tetraloop and the complementary sequence also increased. In contrast, when LNAs were substituted in the stem, the hybridization rate decreased implying the formation of a more stable hairpin. Substitution of LNAs into the end region of the sequence had little effect on the hybridization rate constants although melting temperatures still showed a predictable increase. Rates also increased when LNAs were substituted into complementary strands of DNA tetraloops. The increase in hybridization rate constant is being attributed to changes in the structure of the stable single strands.