Is it time to consider population screening for fracture risk in postmenopausal women? A position paper from the International Osteoporosis Foundation Epidemiology/Quality of Life Working Group.

The IOF Epidemiology and Quality of Life Working Group has reviewed the potential role of population screening for high hip fracture risk against well-established criteria. The report concludes that such an approach should strongly be considered in many health care systems to reduce the burden of hip fractures. INTRODUCTION: The burden of long-term osteoporosis management falls on primary care in most healthcare systems. However, a wide and stable treatment gap exists in many such settings; most of which appears to be secondary to a lack of awareness of fracture risk. Screening is a public health measure for the purpose of identifying individuals who are likely to benefit from further investigations and/or treatment to reduce the risk of a disease or its complications. The purpose of this report was to review the evidence for a potential screening programme to identify postmenopausal women at increased risk of hip fracture. METHODS: The approach took well-established criteria for the development of a screening program, adapted by the UK National Screening Committee, and sought the opinion of 20 members of the International Osteoporosis Foundation's Working Group on Epidemiology and Quality of Life as to whether each criterion was met (yes, partial or no). For each criterion, the evidence base was then reviewed and summarized. RESULTS AND CONCLUSION: The report concludes that evidence supports the proposal that screening for high fracture risk in primary care should strongly be considered for incorporation into many health care systems to reduce the burden of fractures, particularly hip fractures. The key remaining hurdles to overcome are engagement with primary care healthcare professionals, and the implementation of systems that facilitate and maintain the screening program.

A multicentre study on epidemiology and prevention of needle stick injuries among students of nursing schools.

INTRODUCTION: Among the health professions with a long period of training, the students of the Nursing Bachelor's Degree are the most exposed to biological risk resulting from accidents, in particular with needles and cutting edges. The aim of the study was to estimate the frequency and the circumstances for the occurrence of needle stick injuries, as a knowledge base for targeted prevention interventions. METHODS: The study was carried out between May and July 2017 in 11 Universities in Italy and 1 in Albania (associated with the "Tor Vergata" University of Rome). An anonymous semi-structured questionnaire was proposed to 1st (second semester), 2nd and 3rd year students of Nursing Bachelor's Degree. RESULTS: A total of 2742 questionnaires were collected. The average age of participants was 22.9 years (median 22, range 19-60 years), 73% of whom were females. A total of 381 injuries were reported. Three hundred and sixteen students (11.8%) underwent at least 1 injury (12.7% among females, 9.7% among males); 41 students declared two or more injuries; four students did not report the number of injuries occurred. The first injury occurred, as an average, 17 days after the start of the internship (median 15 days) and, in 25% of the cases, during the first 9 days. The highest percentage of accidents occurred during the first internship (25.3% of the total) and decreased with the progress of the training path. The injuries occurred in 38% of cases during drug preparation, 24% when disposing of sharp devices, 15% while re-capping needles, 13% during blood sampling and 10% in other circumstances. In 51.2% of cases, the needle was not sterile. Among the nursing students who suffered a needle stick injury, 58.1% declared that they had performed the post-exposure prophylaxis. 96% of students stated to be vaccinated against Hepatitis B virus. Amongst the students who had their serological status checked (74%), 18% stated the antibody titre was not protective. 49.8% of students answered to have been trained in advance on the correct procedures to avoid needle stick and cutting edges injuries in each clinical ward attended, 41.2% referred that this occurred only in some wards and 10% in no ward at all. CONCLUSION: The results of this study show a high percentage of needle stick injuries in students of the Nursing Bachelor's Degree. Therefore, there is a need for careful reflection on the most effective methods of targeted training acquisition of knowledge, skills and behavioural models useful for the exercise of the profession.

Prevalence of osteoporosis and fractures among women prescribed osteoporosis medication in five European countries: the POSSIBLE EU study.

UNLABELLED: European observational 1-year study assessed osteoporosis and fracture patterns in 3,402 postmenopausal women prescribed osteoporosis medication. Almost 40% of patients had a previous fracture, while 25% had neither fracture nor dual energy X-ray absorptiometry (DXA) diagnosis and were prescribed medication, probably due to other risk factors. INTRODUCTION: This analysis assessed osteoporosis and fracture prevalence in postmenopausal women prescribed osteoporosis treatment in the Prospective Observational Study Investigating Bone Loss Experience in Europe(POSSIBLE EU). METHODS: Women in this observational, multicenter 1-year study were categorized by fracture history and location at baseline. Baseline characteristics were analyzed according to no DXA and DXA diagnosis (osteoporosis or osteopenia). Fractures occurring during the 1-year follow-up period were recorded. RESULTS: Of the 3,402 women enrolled, 39% had a previous fracture, of whom 30% had ≥ 2 fractures. One thousand seven hundred and eighty-four (52%) patients had a DXA diagnosis (osteoporosis 68%, osteopenia 31%, and unknown 1%). Among the osteoporosis patients, 37% had a previous fracture (hip 2.9%, vertebral 8.8%, and non-hip, non-vertebral 25%) and 35% had fractures associated with major trauma. Of the 3,402 women, 1,476 (43%) had no DXA diagnosis; of these, 57% had no fracture (25% of all women). Risk factors varied across patients with and without DXA diagnosis. During the 1-year follow-up period, the fracture incidence in patients with or without a previous fracture at baseline was 4.7% and 1.6%, respectively. CONCLUSION: Almost 40% of patients prescribed osteoporosis medication had a previous fracture, highlighting a population with advanced disease. In contrast, 25% of patients had neither a previous fracture nor DXA diagnosis and were prescribed treatment, probably due to other risk factors. There is a need for continued improvement of disease management in European women.

Decreased periprosthetic bone loss in patients treated with clodronate: a 1-year randomized controlled study.

The efficacy of clodronate to reduce bone loss around uncemented stems after total hip arthroplasty(THA) was evaluated. Ninety-one patients operated with uncemented THA were randomized to receive either intramuscular clodronate at a dose of 100 mg weekly for 12 months or no treatment. Periprosthetic and contralateral bone mineral density (BMD) scans were performed and biochemical markers of bone turnover measured at baseline and at 3, 6, and 12 months. At month 12, with the exception of Gruen zones 4 and 5, patients treated with clodronate showed less bone loss at all zones, reaching statistical significance (P\0.05) in Gruen zones 2 and 6 (difference of 6.6 and 5.9%, respectively). Analysis of data according to gender revealed sex-related differences in bone loss and efficacy of treatment. After 12 months, the difference in bone loss between treated and untreated women in five out of seven Gruen zones ranged from 6.2 to 13.3% (SS at zones 2 and 6), whereas comparison between treated and untreated men showed no BMD differences in all zones(P[0.05). Median percent changes in serum levels of markers of bone metabolism by gender were consistent with BMD changes. A 1-year treatment with intramuscular clodronate determined a significant reduction of bone loss after THA. This was mainly attributed to its greater efficacy in the female population, which is at higher risk for bone loss. This observation suggests the need for the characterization of high-risk subjects as potential candidates for prevention strategies.

Relationship between 3-month changes in biochemical markers of bone remodelling and changes in bone mineral density and fracture incidence in patients treated with strontium ranelate for 3 years.

SUMMARY: From two randomised controlled trials, it is shown that 3-month changes in biochemical markers of bone formation (bone-specific alkaline phosphatase and C-terminal propeptide of type I procollagen) were associated with 3-year bone mineral density (BMD) changes, but not fracture incidence in patients treated with strontium ranelate. INTRODUCTION: The purpose of this study was to assess if short-term change in biochemical markers of bone remodelling is associated with long-term BMD change and fracture incidence observed during treatment with strontium ranelate. METHODS: From the SOTI and TROPOS trials, bone-specific alkaline phosphatase (BALP), C-terminal propeptide of type I procollagen (PICP), serum C-terminal telopeptides (S-CTX) and urine N-terminal telopeptides of type I collagen (U-NTX) were assessed at baseline and after 3 months. RESULTS: Two thousand three hundred seventy-three women were included in this study. Multiple regression analysis showed that 3-month changes in PICP and BALP but not s-CTX I nor s-NTX I were significantly (p < 0.001) associated with 3-year BMD changes at the lumbar spine and the femoral neck. Changes in s-CTX I, PICP and BALP were significantly associated with change in total proximal femur BMD. Changes in biochemical markers explain less than 8% of the BMD changes. The 3-month changes in BALP, PICP s-CTX I and s-NTX I were not significantly associated with fracture incidence. CONCLUSIONS: Short-term changes in biochemical markers of bone formation are associated with future BMD changes in patients treated with strontium ranelate, suggesting a bone-forming activity of this treatment, but are not appropriate to monitor the efficacy of strontium ranelate at the individual level.

Effects of long-term strontium ranelate treatment on vertebral fracture risk in postmenopausal women with osteoporosis.

SUMMARY: Vertebral fractures are a major adverse consequence of osteoporosis. In a large placebo-controlled trial in postmenopausal women with osteoporosis, strontium ranelate reduced vertebral fracture risk by 33% over 4 years, confirming the role of strontium ranelate as an effective long-term treatment in osteoporosis. INTRODUCTION: Osteoporotic vertebral fractures are associated with increased mortality, morbidity, and loss of quality-of-life (QoL). Strontium ranelate (2 g/day) was shown to prevent bone loss, increase bone strength, and reduce vertebral and peripheral fractures. The preplanned aim of this study was to evaluate long-term efficacy and safety of strontium ranelate. METHODS: A total of 1,649 postmenopausal osteoporotic women were randomized to strontium ranelate or placebo for 4 years, followed by a 1-year treatment-switch period for half of the patients. Primary efficacy criterion was incidence of patients with new vertebral fractures over 4 years. Lumbar bone mineral density (BMD) and QoL were also evaluated. RESULTS: Over 4 years, risk of vertebral fracture was reduced by 33% with strontium ranelate (risk reduction = 0.67, p < 0.001). Among patients with two or more prevalent vertebral fractures, risk reduction was 36% (p < 0.001). QoL, assessed by the QUALIOST(R), was significantly better (p = 0.025), and patients without back pain were greater (p = 0.005) with strontium ranelate than placebo over 4 years. Lumbar BMD increased over 5 years in patients who continued with strontium ranelate, while it decreased in patients who switched to placebo. Emergent adverse events were similar between groups. CONCLUSION: In this 4- and 5-year study, strontium ranelate is an effective and safe treatment for long-term treatment of osteoporosis in postmenopausal women.

Relationship between change in femoral neck bone mineral density and hip fracture incidence during treatment with strontium ranelate.

OBJECTIVE: Strontium ranelate (SR) increases bone mineral density (BMD) in postmenopausal osteoporotic women and reduces vertebral and non-vertebral fracture incidence. Hip fracture reduction has also been observed during 3-year treatment with SR in osteoporotic women at high risk of hip fracture. The objective of this study is to analyse the association between BMD changes and hip fracture incidence during treatment with SR. MATERIAL AND METHODS: In this post-hoc analysis, 465 women aged over 74 years with low BMD at the femoral neck (T-score < or = -2.4 according to NHANES normative values) were selected from the population of a recently published study (the Treatment of Peripheral Osteoporosis Study - TROPOS). BMD was assessed at the femoral neck at baseline and after a follow-up of 3 years. Hip fractures were reported by study investigators. RESULTS: After adjusting for age, body mass index, femoral neck BMD at baseline and number of prevalent vertebral fractures, we found that for each 1% increase in femoral neck BMD observed after 3 years, the risk to experience a hip fracture after 3 years decreased by 7% (95% CI: 1-14%) (p = 0.04). In patients experiencing a hip fracture over 3 years of treatment with SR, femoral neck BMD increased by (mean [SE]) 3.41 (1.02)% compared to 7.23 (0.81)% in patients without hip fracture (p = 0.02). CONCLUSION: In this post-hoc analysis of women undergoing 3 years of SR treatment, an increase in femoral neck BMD is associated with a decrease in hip fracture incidence.

Active-feedback control of the magnetic boundary for magnetohydrodynamic stabilization of a fusion plasma.

Stable operation with control on magnetohydrodynamic modes has been obtained in the modified reversed field experiment employing a set of 192 feedback controlled saddle coils. Improvements of plasma temperature, confinement (twofold), and pulse length (threefold) and, as a consequence of the magnetic fluctuation reduction, strong mitigation of plasma-wall interaction and mode locking are reported.

Superiority of alfacalcidol compared to vitamin D plus calcium in lumbar bone mineral density in postmenopausal osteoporosis.

In a randomized multicenter, double-blind, double-dummy, parallel group study a comparison of the efficacy and safety of 1 microg alfacalcidol to 880 IU vitamin D plus calcium carbonate (1 g calcium) once daily per os was performed on 148 postmenopausal osteoporotic Caucasian patients with normal vitamin D serum levels for 18 months. Bone mineral density (BMD) was measured at baseline, 12 and 18 months. Safety parameters were followed during the entire study period. Sixty-nine (90.8%) in the alfacalcidol group and 67 (93.1%) in the vitamin D group were included in the ITT analysis. Lumbar BMD in the alfacalcidol group increased by 0.017 g/cm2 (2.33%) and 0.021 g/cm2 (2.87%) from baseline (P<0.001) at 12 and 18 months, respectively, whereas in the vitamin D plus calcium group the increase was 0.005 g/cm2 (0.70%) from baseline (N.S.) at both 12 and 18 months. The higher changes from baseline in the alfacalcidol group, as compared to the changes in the vitamin D plus calcium group at both 12 and 18 months, were found to be statistically significant (P=0.018, 0.005). A small increase of mean femoral BMD was achieved in both groups (N.S.). Adverse events were similar in both groups. No significant differences were noted between the groups in serum calcium. In conclusion, alfacalcidol was found to be superior in significantly increasing lumbar BMD as compared to vitamin D plus calcium while safety characteristics were found to be similar in both treatments.

Feedback stabilization of multiple resistive wall modes.

Active feedback stabilization of multiple independent resistive wall modes is experimentally demonstrated in a reversed-field pinch plasma. A reproducible simultaneous suppression of several nonresonant resistive wall modes is achieved. Coupling of different modes due to the limited number of the feedback coils is observed in agreement with theory. The feedback stabilization of nonresonant RWMs also has an effect on tearing modes that are resonant in the central plasma, leading to a significant prolongation of the discharge pulse.

Rapid suppression of bone resorption and parathyroid hormone secretion by acute oral administration of calcium in healthy adult men.

Acute effects of oral calcium supplementation have been studied mainly in pre- and post-menopausal women, whereas very few data concerning men are available. We investigated the effects of 1.2 g of oral calcium administered for 4 days in 18 healthy young men. The day before the first calcium dosing (day -1) and the day of the last calcium dosing (day 4) total and ionized serum calcium and intact PTH were measured at multiple time-points up to 24 h; calcium, C-terminal telopeptide (CTX), pyridinoline (PYD) and deoxypyridinoline (DPD) were measured in urine collected every six h. On day 4, total and ionized serum calcium increased during the 6 h following oral calcium: the maximum increase over baseline was 5.04 and 7.4% respectively, occurring after 2.9 +/- 1.9 h (mean +/- SD) and 2.6 +/- 0.9 h. The AUC was significantly higher on day 4 than on day -1 for both total serum calcium (+4.6%, p<0.02) and ionized serum calcium (+9.2%, p<0.0001). Twenty-four h urinary excretion of total calcium increased significantly on day 4 (+15.1%, p<0.02), mainly as a consequence of increased excretion during the first 6 h. Serum PTH was suppressed by oral calcium, with a significant reduction of AUC on day 4 (-15.1%, p<0.05). Serum concentrations of intact PTH dropped from 26.4 +/- 9.8 pg/ml at time zero to a minimum mean value of 14.9 +/- 7.6 pg/ml at time +2 h. Bone resorption markers significantly decreased on day 4 (CTX -33.2%, p<0.001; PYD -28.5%, p<0.05; DPD -35.8%, p<0.02). Most of the effect was seen in the first 6 h after oral calcium load. These data support the concept that acute suppression of PTH and bone resorption induced by calcium administration is not gender specific and provide the rationale to further assess also in men the long-term effects of oral calcium in the prevention and treatment of osteoporosis.

Bone loss and recovery in regional migratory osteoporosis.

Regional migratory osteoporosis (RMO) is a migrating arthralgia of the weight-bearing joints of the lower limb associated with focal osteoporosis. Little information is available on a quantitative assessment of systemic or local osteoporosis. In this study, we report three cases of RMO in which spine, hip and whole body serial assessments of bone mass have been evaluated to outline their extent and time course of changes. Systemic osteoporosis, with a prevalent involvement of the mainly trabecular skeletal sites, was present in all the patients, with T-scores below -2.5 at both the lumbar spine and femoral neck. Bone loss in acute episodes ranged from -75.5% to -14.7% and appeared related to the severity of the episode. In acute episodes the demineralizing process affected the whole limb from the hemipelvis to the foot: the bone loss ranged from -33.6% to -3.5% at sites with prevalent trabecular composition and from -19.1% to -1.1% at sites with prevalent cortical composition. Bone recovery was complete in one episode out of six. In the other five cases, the average residual bone loss was 26% (range 13.9-32.7%). Our observations suggest that RMO occurs in subjects with systemic osteoporosis and densitometric assessment may aid in the clinical management.

Regional migratory osteoporosis: a pathogenetic hypothesis based on three cases and a review of the literature.

Regional migratory osteoporosis (RMO) is a migrating arthralgia of the weight-bearing joints of the lower limb which mainly affects middle-aged males. Its aetiology is unknown. The association of RMO with generalised osteoporosis has recently been reported. A concurrent systemic osteoporosis was also reported in some cases of transient osteoporosis of the hip (TOH), a disorder closely related to RMO. In its turn, TOH is considered a reversible stage of avascular necrosis of the hip (AVN), and the aetiopathogenesis of both of them remains strongly debated. We report three cases of RMO associated with generalised severe idiopathic osteoporosis. Three men, in the fourth and fifth decades of life, complained of at least four episodes of arthralgia in the lower limbs, with a migratory pattern, radiographic focal osteoporosis and final clinical resolution. The most striking common feature of these patients was the presence of a severe systemic osteoporosis with a prevailing trabecular involvement. We suggest that a prolonged or exaggerated activation of regional acceleratory phenomena (RAP) is the cause of transient osteoporosis. Bone tissue microdamage due to osteoporosis may be the most frequent noxious stimulus that turns RAP on, and, bone tissue microfracture is the most prevalent consequence. When this pathogenetic pathway is activated, the progression from focal osteoporosis and bone marrow oedema to avascular necrosis is associated with the amount of structural damage.

Short-term intravenous therapy with Neridronate in Paget's disease.

AIMS: To describe the effects of two consecutive intravenous infusions of aminohexane bisphosphonate (Neridronate) in patients with active Paget's disease of bone. METHODS: The study population included 83 patients, aged 41 to 85 years, randomized to 4 cumulative doses of Neridronate (25, 50, 100, 200 mg) given over 2 days, with a follow up of 180 days. The baseline serum alkaline phosphatase activity was at least 10% above the upper limit of the laboratory range. The response to treatment was assessed by changes in the serum total alkaline phosphatase (primary end point of the study), bone alkaline phosphatase and N-telopeptide urinary excretion. RESULTS: All Neridronate doses significantly suppressed the biochemical indices of disease activity. The nadir of total alkaline phosphatase levels ranged from -16 % to -57.5% of pretreatment values in the four groups, with a dose-response relationship that was apparent even between the two highest doses. The proportion of patients still maintaining a partial response (decreases in serum total alkaline phosphatase >25%) at the 6 month follow-up was also related to the dose: 98%, 67%, 57%, 21% in the patients given 200, 100, 50, 25 mg respectively. The proportion of responders in terms of bone alkaline phosphatase and N-telopeptide excretion changes was similar. Bone pain attributed to Paget's disease was significantly reduced. A typical acute phase reaction (fever and/or arthromyalgia) occurred in 16 out of 83 patients. CONCLUSIONS: We conclude that all of the Neridronate doses tested here were well tolerated and effective in decreasing, in a dose-related manner the bone turnover parameters of Paget's disease. The highest dose (200 mg) resulted in the normalization of the markers of disease activity in more than 60% of the patients.

Effects of 12-month GH treatment on bone metabolism and bone mineral density in adults with adult-onset GH deficiency.

Serum bone-Gla protein (BGP), bone alkaline phosphatase (B-AP), and C-terminal cross-linked telopeptide of type I collagen (ICTP) levels were evaluated in 18 adults with acquired GH deficiency (GHD, 14 males and 4 females, age range: 25-59 yr) before, at 3, 6, 9 and 12 months of rec-GH treatment (0.125 IU/kg/week for the first month, followed by 0.25 IU/kg/week for 11 months) and 6 months after the withdrawal of therapy. Total body bone mineral density (BMD, g/cm2) was measured with dual energy X-ray absorptiometry (Hologic QDR 1000/W) before, at 12 months of GH treatment and 6 months after its withdrawal. Before treatment, BGP (mean+/-SE: 5.1+/-0.4 ng/ml), B-AP (59.4+/-6.5 IU/l), ICTP (3.1+/-0.3 ng/ml) levels of patients were similar to in healthy controls (BGP: 5.4+/-0.1 ng/ml; B-AP: 58.2+/-2.0 IU/l; ICTP: 4.1+/-0.3 ng/ml). GH treatment caused a significant increase of BGP, B-AP, ICTP levels, the maximal stimulation of bone resorption, occurring after 3 months of GH treatment, while the maximal effect on bone formation being evident later (at 6th month). A slight decline in BGP, B-AP, T-AP and ICTP levels occurred at 9-12 months of therapy, although the values remained significantly higher than in basal conditions and with respect to healthy controls. Before treatment, mean total body BMD of patients (1.110+/-0.027 g/cm2, range: 0.944-1.350 g/cm2) was not significantly different (z-score: +0.47+/-0.31, NS) from that observed in healthy controls (1.065+/-0.008 g/cm2, range: 1.008-1.121 g/cm2). GH therapy was associated with a significant reduction of mean total body BMD values (6th month: -1.8+/-0.5%, p<0.01; 12th month: -2.1+/-1.0%, p<0.05 vs baseline), particularly evident in the first six months of treatment. Six months after the withdrawal of GH therapy, BGP (5.9+/-0.5 ng/ml), B-AP (57.3+/-7.0 IU/l) and ICTP (3.2+/-0.1 ng/ml) levels returned similar to those recorded before treatment, while total BMD increased (+1.5+/-0.7, p<0.05), remaining however slightly lower than in basal conditions (-0.6+/-1.2, NS). In conclusion, our study shows that: a) acquired GHD in adulthood is associated with both normal bone formation/resorption indexes and normal total body BMD; b) GH therapy causes a significant rise of bone formation/resorption markers (earlier and greater for bone resorption); c) one-year GH therapy is associated with a reduction of total body BMD values, particularly evident in the first 6 months of treatment; d) the effects of GH therapy on bone turnover are transient, being completely reverted six months after the withdrawal of GH therapy; e) the increase of total body BMD (up to baseline values) after GH withdrawal might be explained as consequence of persisting effects of previous GH stimulation on bone remodeling.

Quasi-single-helicity reversed-field-pinch plasmas

The reversed field pinch (RFP) is a configuration for plasma magnetic confinement. It has been traditionally viewed as dominated by a bath of MHD instabilities producing magnetic chaos and high energy transport. We report experimental results which go beyond this view. They show a decrease of magnetic chaos and the formation of a coherent helical structure in the plasma, whose imaging and temperature profile are provided for the first time. These quasi-single-helicity states are observed both transiently and in stationary conditions. The last case is consistent with a theoretically predicted bifurcation. Our results set a new frame for improving confinement in high current nonchaotic RFP's.

[Research and evaluation of Internet resources for the practice and teaching of nursing]. / Ricerca e valutazione delle risorse Internet per la pratica e l'insegnamento della professione infermieristica.

Recent changes in the Italian health care system are causing a complex redefinition of the traditional principles of nursing. Among the new principles that are being proposed, the implementation of a clinical practice based on the evidence generated by the medical research community appears to be prominent. However, objective time constraints in finding and evaluating the available information have often hampered the achievement of this highly desirable goal. In this perspective, exploitation of the intrinsic quickness of the internet-based information retrieval systems has the potential to effectively circumvent the problem. To provide nurses with a proper training in a timely search and evaluation of on-line data, we have designed and developed a guide to those websites providing clinical information. This guide consists of (1) reviews of existing websites, and (2) proposal of a standardized model for selection, evaluation, and description of existing and newly appearing websites. We believe that this guide might increase the capability of nurses to effectively exploit the medical and scientific information resources available on the net.

Bone densitometry: assessing the effects of growth hormone treatment in adults.

Dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry (DXA) is the reference method for the measurement of bone mineral mass at different skeletal sites. It has been widely used in recent years to assess the effects of growth hormone (GH) treatment on bone metabolism. In normal individuals, bone mineral content (BMC) and density (BMD), as assessed using DXA, correlate with body size. Therefore, using DXA in patients with congenital GH deficiency (GHD), who have a smaller body frame, would be expected to result in lower bone mass. Thus, comparisons with reference data derived from populations of normal body size are invalid. The evaluation of the effects of GH administration should take into account the possible effects of GH on bone size, not only in children, but also in adults. The enlargement of bone, due to stimulation of the periosteal apposition, may partially mask an increase in BMC, resulting in little or no change in BMD. The ability of GH to affect bone area therefore requires analysis of the possible changes in bone area and BMC, as well as BMD. This issue has been poorly handled in the studies published to date. Lastly, the acceleration of bone turnover induced by GH leads to an increase in bone remodelling space, which in turn is associated with a reduction in BMC and BMD, independent of the net balance between breakdown and formation in each metabolic unit. This bone loss is completely reversible when the remodelling space returns to previous levels. This phenomenon must be taken into account when analysing the effects of GH treatment on bone mass, because a net gain in bone mass may be found in long-term GH treatment or after GH discontinuation, even if bone loss was evident during the first 6 months of treatment. In conclusion, the interpretation of bone density data in patients with GHD, and after GH administration, should take into account some of the methodological aspects of bone densitometry, as well as the specific actions of GH on bone metabolism and body composition.