School Performance in Third Grade After a Full-Day vs Part-Day Preschool Program.

This study assesses whether learning gains associated with full-day preschool were sustained through third grade by analyzing achievement scores and need for remediation.

Early Childhood Education and Midlife Ideal Cardiovascular Health in a Prospective Urban Cohort.

This cohort study assesses whether preschool is associated with long-term cardiovascular health as measured by the American Heart Association's Ideal Cardiovascular Health Index.

Evaluation of Midlife Educational Attainment Among Attendees of a Comprehensive Early Childhood Education Program in the Context of Early Adverse Childhood Experiences.

Importance: Educational attainment is a key social determinant of health and can be particularly consequential for racial and ethnic minority populations. Although the consequences of adverse childhood experiences (ACEs) are well established, there is little research on protective factors and policy-relevant strategies to mitigate ACE-related inequities. Objective: To examine associations between early ACEs, comprehensive early intervention, and midlife educational attainment in a cohort of predominantly Black participants. Design, Setting, and Participants: The Chicago Longitudinal Study is a prospective cohort study of Black and Latinx children from Chicago, Illinois. The intervention group included 989 children entering the Child-Parent Center (CPC) preschool Early Childhood Education (ECE) program in the 1980s. The comparison group comprised 550 children participating in usual early childhood services. All participants were followed up for 30 years after the end of the intervention. Analyses were conducted from July 1 to September 1, 2022. Intervention: Attendance at the CPC preschool ECE program. Main Outcomes and Measures: A standard battery of early childhood ACEs (conventional ACEs), a set of early childhood ACEs more commonly associated with high-poverty contexts (expanded ACEs), and educational attainment at 35 years of age were measured from self-report and administrative records. Results: The original Chicago Longitudinal Study sample comprised 1539 participants (1430 Black participants [92.9%]; 774 female participants [50.3%]). Data on educational attainment and ACEs were available for 1083 of 1467 living participants (73.8%). Participants in the present study (1013 Black participants [93.5%]; 594 female participants [54.9%]) were a mean (SD) age of 35.1 (0.3) years at completion of the midlife survey. For the comparison group but not the CPC intervention group, having 1 or more conventional or expanded ACEs in early childhood was associated with fewer years of education (ß = -0.64; 95% CI, -1.02 to -0.26), reduced likelihood of attaining a bachelor's degree or higher (odds ratio, 0.26; 95% CI, 0.09-0.70), and reduced likelihood of attaining an associate's degree or higher (odds ratio, 0.26; 95% CI, 0.11-0.62) after adjusting for covariates. Moderation analyses indicated that CPC participants with either conventional or expanded ACEs in early childhood attained a bachelor's degree or higher and an associate's degree or higher at rates similar to CPC participants without early ACEs (15.4% vs 13.6% for bachelor's degree or higher; 22.4% vs 19.9% for associate's degree or higher). Conversely, comparison group participants with early ACEs had significantly lower rates of educational attainment than their counterparts without ACEs (3.7% vs 12.1% for bachelor's degree or higher; 5.6% vs 17.1% for associate's degree or higher). Conclusions: This cohort study suggests that early ACEs were associated with reduced educational attainment for the comparison group but not for the group participating in the CPC comprehensive early intervention. These results build on research suggesting that youths at higher risk can benefit most from intervention and support ECE as a tool for reducing ACE-related disparities.

Closing Achievement Gaps Through Preschool-To-Third-Grade Programs.

Achievement gaps by family income, race, and ethnicity have persisted for decades. Yet only in recent years has this major social problem become a national priority in the U.S. and many other countries as concern rises over growing economic inequalities. In this paper, we document gaps in school readiness and achievement in the U.S. and how they adversely affect the life course development of children and families from underrepresented groups. We emphasize the promising role of preschool-to-3rd grade (P-3) programs to reduce a variety of achievement gaps through comprehensive strategies that enrich educational and family experiences during most of the first decade of life. Implementation of the core elements of effective learning experiences, collaborative leadership, aligned curriculum, parent involvement and engagement, professional development, and continuity and stability in the Child-Parent Center Program have shown relatively strong and sustained effects on school achievement, especially for Black children growing up in urban poverty. This evidence from the Chicago Longitudinal Study and other projects suggests that broader scale up of truly comprehensive approaches that begin early, continue through most of the first decade, and are multilevel in scope can make a bigger difference than many existing strategies in reducing achievement gaps and their persistence.

Psychiatric and substance use disorders in a predominately low-income, black sample in early midlife.

Decades of research have documented elevated rates of psychopathology among individuals affected by poverty. However, many studies have relied on predominately White samples, and on brief symptom screening measures which may not fully capture the experiences of individuals of color (who are disproportionately affected by poverty in the United States.) The present study examines prevalence rates of probable major depressive disorder, generalized anxiety disorder, post-traumatic stress disorder, substance use disorder, and alcohol use disorder in a predominately Black sample that grew up in urban poverty, utilizing structured neuropsychiatric interview methods. Data are drawn from a subsample of the Chicago Longitudinal Study (CLS), which has followed a large cohort for over four decades. Outcomes were assessed using the Mini International Neuropsychiatric Interview (M.I.N.I.) 7.0.2. Results indicate high probable rates of all measured outcomes, with notably high rates of substance use and alcohol use disorder compared to rates reported in previous national studies. Differences by sex and childhood neighborhood poverty, as well as significant comorbidity among psychiatric, substance and alcohol use disorders were also detected. Findings underscore an urgent need for community-based, culturally tailored prevention and intervention initiatives to support the mental health of individuals living in poverty. The high prevalence of psychiatric, substance and alcohol use disorders in this study likely reflect systematic inequities faced by low-income people of color in the United States. Future directions for research and practice are discussed.

Assessment of a Comprehensive Early Childhood Education Program and Cardiovascular Disease Risk in Midlife.

Importance: Educational attainment is an underrecognized factor associated with racial disparities in cardiovascular disease (CVD) risk. Early childhood programs providing comprehensive family services can promote educational and socioeconomic success, but few, if any, studies of large-scale programs have assessed their associations with midlife CVD risk and mediating factors. Objective: To examine the association between an early childhood program providing multisystemic services from ages 3 to 9 years with midlife CVD risk and whether years of education mediate these associations. Design, Setting, and Participants: Using a matched-group, quasi-experimental design, a cohort of Black and Hispanic children in the Chicago Longitudinal Study enrolled in an established early childhood program from 1983 to 1989 or the usual services were followed up for 30 years after the end of the intervention. A midlife survey on well-being was administered when the participants were aged 37 years. Analyses were conducted from September 1, 2020, to October 15, 2020. Intervention: The Child-Parent Center (CPC) Education Program provides school-based educational enrichment and comprehensive family services for 6 years, from ages 3 to 9 years (preschool to third grade [P-3]). Main Outcomes and Measures: General and hard Framingham Risk Scores (FRSs) were calculated from self-reported physical health and behavior profiles in the midlife Chicago Longitudinal Study survey. Years of education completed at age 34 years were measured primarily from administrative records. Results: There were 1539 participants in the original sample (1430 Black participants [92.9%]; 108 Hispanic participants [7.0%]; 1 White participant [0.1%]); 1104 of 1401 participants (78.8%) in the tracked sample completed a midlife survey on well-being by age 37 years, and 1060 participants had data available for analysis (mean [SD] age, 34.9 [1.4] years; 565 women [53.3%]), including 523 participants who grew up in high-poverty contexts. After adjusting for 17 baseline attributes and differential attrition via propensity score weighting, CPC preschool was associated with significantly lower general FRS (marginal coefficient, -2.2 percentage points [% hereafter]; 95% CI -0.7% to -3.6%; P = .004) and hard FRS (marginal coefficient, -1.6%; 95% CI -0.5% to -2.6%; P = .004), for a 20% reduction in cardiovascular disease risk. The program group was also less likely to have high-risk FRS status, including being in the top quartile of hard FRS (marginal coefficient, -7.2%; 95% CI, -0.3% to -11.6%; P = .02). Those who participated for 4 to 6 years (CPC P-3) had lower general FRS than those who participated for fewer years, but the difference was not significant (marginal coefficient, -1.2%; 95% CI, -2.5% to 0.2%; P = .09); longer participation was associated with placement in the median or higher risk category for general FRS (marginal coefficient, -7.9%; 95% CI -0.7% to -12.4%; P = .007) and hard FRS (marginal coefficient, -9.0%; 95% CI -0.6% to -11.4%; P = .02). Years of education completed by age 34 years accounted for up to 23% of the observed group differences for FRSs, including CPC preschool (general FRS, from -2.16% to -1.66%; difference = -0.5%) and P-3 (general FRS, from -1.16% to -0.71%; difference = -0.45%). Conclusions and Relevance: In this quasi-experimental design study, a comprehensive early childhood program for a community cohort at high risk of disparities was associated with lower CVD risk later in life. Corroborating previous research, years of education through college matriculation accounted for a sizable percentage of this association. Early childhood enrichment may contribute to CVD prevention.

Educational growth trajectories in adulthood: Findings from an inner-city cohort.

Educational attainment is typically examined as a static status. As adult learners have become the new trend in higher education, the changes in educational attainment in adulthood warrant more attention. Using data from the Chicago Longitudinal study (CLS), an ongoing panel investigation of 1,539 children, predictors of educational growth trajectories in adulthood were investigated. Of the study sample (N = 1,418), 51.8% were women, 93.2% were Black, 6.8% were Hispanic, 83.4% were eligible for free lunch between birth and age 3. The average age of the study sample in June 2015 was 35.1, ranging from 34.4 to 36.6. Hierarchical linear modeling (HLM) was used to analyze the changes in educational attainment between ages 24 and 35. Findings indicate that mothers not completing high school by child's age 3 and days of absence at school were significantly associated with lower educational attainment at age 24. Classroom adjustment, student college expectations, 8th grade reading scores, and on-time high school graduation were significantly associated with higher educational attainment at age 24. Classroom adjustment, 8th grade reading score, and on-time high school graduation were significantly associated with a positive growth of education between ages 24 and 35. Findings suggest that improving academic achievement and socioemotional learning skills in elementary and middle school and promoting on-time high school graduation are likely to increase one's chances to continue pursuing higher education in adulthood for Black low-income children. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2021 APA, all rights reserved).

Thirty years later: Locating and interviewing participants of the Chicago Longitudinal Study.

Retaining study participants over time is essential for longitudinal studies to prevent selection bias and to achieve their long-term goals. The present paper examines the extent to which participants can be retained in a 30-year longitudinal study when a multi-pronged approach is employed. The paper specifically describes the approach that was used to locate and interview participants of the Chicago Longitudinal Study (CLS), three decades after the study began. The CLS is a prospective cohort investigation that examines the effects of the Child-Parent Center (CPC) program, a school-based intervention for low-income children from preschool through 3rd grade. The original CLS sample included a complete cohort of 1,539 children who were born in low-income areas in 1979-1980 and attended kindergarten in 1985-1986 at Chicago Public Schools. The CLS conducted a follow-up survey when participants were approximately age 35. After relatively slow initial progress, CLS researchers developed a comprehensive strategy to locate and interview participants, including: (a) adoption of detailed, manualized tracking protocol, (b) utilization of multiple search platforms, ranging from public search engines to social media, (c) assistance from state correctional facilities, and (d) neighborhood canvassing and in-person interviews. This tracking and interview process facilitated 735 completed interviews within 27 months, compared to 370 completed interviews in the 32 months prior to the launch of the comprehensive tracking protocol. Altogether, 1,105 interviews were conducted, representing an effective completion rate of 76.5%. Recommendations for strengthening response rates in other longitudinal studies are discussed.

Childhood predictors of adult obesity in the Chicago Longitudinal Study.

Despite obesity being a major concern for both children and adults in the United States today, there are few successful childhood interventions that curb obesity later in life. The objective of the current study is to identify childhood predictors of adult obesity at multiple levels in a large longitudinal sample of participants from an economically disadvantaged childhood cohort. 1065 participants (93% Black) from the Chicago Longitudinal Study were interviewed as part of a 30-year follow-up between 2012 and 2017. Parent involvement, school quality, neighborhood human capital, socioemotional learning skills, and achievement motivation assessed before age 12 years were examined as predictors of Body Mass Index (BMI) at age 35 years. Child neighborhood human capital and socioemotional learning skills predicted a lower BMI in adulthood and a decreased likelihood of being classified as obese; when separately analyzed by sex, both neighborhood human capital and higher socioemotional learning skills predicted a decreased likelihood of obesity for males and females. Being female and higher birthweight were associated with larger adult BMI. Socioemotional learning and neighborhood human capital in childhood consistently predict a decreased likelihood of being obese at age 35 in this predominately Black sample. Future obesity intervention/prevention programs should aim to bolster childhood socioemotional learning resources and neighborhood capital.

Adverse childhood experiences: Mechanisms of risk and resilience in a longitudinal urban cohort.

There is an extensive literature describing the detrimental effects of adverse childhood experiences (ACE; e.g., abuse, neglect, and household dysfunction) on physical and mental health. However, few large-scale studies have explored these associations longitudinally in urban minority cohorts or assessed links to broader measures of well-being such as educational attainment, occupation, and crime. Although adversity and resilience have long been of interest in developmental psychology, protective and promotive factors have been understudied in the ACE literature. This paper investigates the psychosocial processes through which ACEs contribute to outcomes, in addition to exploring ways to promote resilience to ACEs in vulnerable populations. Follow-up data were analyzed for 87% of the original 1,539 participants in the Chicago Longitudinal Study (N = 1,341), a prospective investigation of the impact of an Early Childhood Education program and early experiences on life-course well-being. Findings suggest that ACEs impact well-being in low-socioeconomic status participants above and beyond the effects of demographic risk and poverty, and point to possible mechanisms of transmission of ACE effects. Results also identify key areas across the ecological system that may promote resilience to ACEs, and speak to the need to continue to support underserved communities in active ways.

Reducing poverty and inequality through preschool-to-third-grade prevention services.

The contributions of psychology to the development and evaluation of preschool-to-third-grade prevention programs are analyzed with an emphasis on poverty alleviation through implementation of effective services for a greater number of children. The need to alleviate poverty and increase economic success is high. Early childhood programs have been found to be an effective strategy for promoting educational success and economic well-being, but the availability of high quality programs that are aligned and integrated with schools across the learning continuum is limited. Psychology has made major contributions to knowledge and practice in (a) defining and evaluating educational enrichment and (b) understanding mechanisms of behavioral change. As an empirical illustration of these contributions for enhancing economic well-being, we report new midlife income data in the Child-Parent Centers, a preschool-to-third-grade program that integrates the two major contributions to improve life course outcomes. Based on a well-matched alternative-intervention design with high sample retention (86%; N = 1,329), findings indicate that participation was associated with a 25% increase in average annual income at age 34 years ($22,708 vs. $18,130; p < .01). Graduates were also more likely to be in the top income quartile (≥$27,500; 30.7% vs. 20.2%; p < .01). Most of the main effects were explained by cognitive, school, and family factors, though further corroboration is needed. Implications for strengthening the impacts of early childhood programs as an avenue for increasing well-being and reducing inequality emphasize redressing ecological barriers, improving continuity and alignment with other strategies, and implementing effectiveness elements widely. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2019 APA, all rights reserved).

Are parent involvement and school quality associated with adult smoking behaviors? Findings from an urban early childhood cohort.

Although smoking prevention is a high priority, few studies have examined alterable family and school context factors in childhood that influence later smoking behaviors. The present study examined associations of parent involvement in and expectations for children's education, elementary school quality, and school mobility with lifetime smoking history in adulthood for a low-income, minority cohort. Participants from the Chicago Longitudinal Study (N = 1142) were interviewed at age 22-24 as part of a 20-year follow-up of a prospective early childhood cohort of economically disadvantaged families. The sample is 74% of the original cohort (N = 1539). Family surveys and school records measured parent involvement and expectations as well as school quality and mobility from 4th to 8th grades. At age 22-24 follow-up, 47% reported a smoking history, and 37% were current smokers. After controlling for family background and participant characteristics, parent involvement in school was associated with reduced odds of a smoking history (OR = 0.88; 95% CI = 0.78, 0.99). Magnet school attendance (a school quality indicator) was associated with lower odds of current (OR = 0.47; 95% CI = 0.28, 0.79) and daily smoking (OR = 0.40, 95% CI = 0.21, 0.74). More frequent school moves were consistently associated with increased odds of smoking (e.g., OR [currently] = 1.17; 95% CI = 1.07, 1.36). Results indicate that protective factors within the family and school context were consistently associated with smoking measures. Programs and practices that strengthen parent involvement and school support may contribute to prevention efforts.

Dosage Effects in the Child-Parent Center PreK-to-3rd Grade Program: A Re-Analysis in the Chicago Longitudinal Study.

Although substantial investments in early childhood intervention have continued, whether gains are sustained past kindergarten for routinely implemented programs is a critical research need. Using data from the Chicago Longitudinal Study (CLS; N=1,539; 50.3% female; 92.9% African American and 7.1% Hispanic), an on-going investigation of the Child-Parent Center (CPC) program for an inner-city cohort, this study investigates the effects of program duration from preschool to 3rd grade on school outcomes and whether the effects differ by gender. Regression analyses are conducted to compare the differences in outcomes among intervention groups. Inverse probability weighting (IPW) is used to adjust for potential attrition and selection biases. Findings indicate that relative to the preschool plus kindergarten (P-K) group, participation from preschool through third grade (P-3) is significantly associated with better academic functioning at both 3rd and 8th grades, better classroom adjustment at 3rd grade, lower rates of retention and school mobility, and few years of special education. Relative to the preschool through second grade (P-2) group, the P-3 group has significantly higher academic functioning in third grade. Results suggest that the P-3 dosage is associated with larger effects on academic functioning for girls and larger effects on social-emotional functioning for boys compare to the P-K dosage. Findings suggest that receiving up to third grade (P-3) of an early childhood education program have associated with persistent effects on developmental outcomes compared to the dosages of P-K. Multi-year programs have the potential to sustain early childhood gains and promote healthy development via improving academic functioning and school experiences.

Chronic absence, eighth-grade achievement, and high school attainment in the Chicago Longitudinal Study.

Although not as commonly reported as average daily attendance, chronic absence data may be of significant importance for understanding student success. Using data from 1148 participants in the Chicago Longitudinal Study, we assessed the associations of chronic absence in the early middle grades, grades fourth through sixth, with eighth-grade achievement and three measures of high school attainment including four-year graduation by diploma, graduation by diploma by age 21, and any high school completion by age 21. The rate of chronic absenteeism, defined here as students missing approximately 14days of school or more in a year, was 15%. Using Ordinary Least Squares, probit regression, and inverse-probability-weighting regression-adjustment methods (IPWRA), results indicated that chronic absence in the early middle grades was negatively associated (d=-0.17) with eighth-grade math achievement and reduced the probability of four-year graduation by diploma by 18 percentage points, graduation by diploma by age 21 by 17 percentage points, and any high school completion by age 21 by 11 percentage points. IPWRA yielded similar estimates. Coefficients varied by subgroup with males and children of mothers who completed high school experiencing more detrimental effects. Associations of chronic absence with outcomes are important to understand because school interventions and practices which begin early can be effective in reducing the prevalence of absenteeism.

A Multicomponent, Preschool to Third Grade Preventive Intervention and Educational Attainment at 35 Years of Age.

Importance: Educational attainment is the leading social determinant of health, but few studies of prevention programs have examined whether the programs are associated with educational attainment outcomes after the mid-20s, especially for large-scale programs that provide a longer duration of services. Objective: To examine the association between a preschool to third grade intervention and educational attainment at midlife and differences by program duration, sex, and parental educational level. Design, Setting, and Participants: This matched-group, alternative intervention study assessed 1539 low-income minority children born in 1979 or 1980 who grew up in high-poverty neighborhoods in Chicago, Illinois. The comparison group included 550 children primarily from randomly selected schools participating in the usual early intervention. A total of 989 children who entered preschool in 1983 or 1984 and completed kindergarten in 1986 were included in the Chicago Longitudinal Study and were followed up for 27 to 30 years after the end of a multicomponent intervention. A total of 1398 participants (90.8%) in the original sample had educational attainment records at 35 years of age. The study was performed from January 1, 2002, through May 31, 2015. Interventions: The Child-Parent Center Program provides school-based educational enrichment and comprehensive family services from preschool to third grade (ages 3-9 years). Main Outcomes and Measures: Educational outcomes from administrative records and self-report included school dropout, 4-year high school graduation, years of education, postsecondary credential, and earned degrees from associate's to master's or higher. Results: A total of 1539 participants (mean [SD] age, 35.1 [0.32] years; 1423 [92.9%] black and 108 [7.1%] Hispanic) were included in the study. After weighting on 2 propensity scores, preschool participants had higher rates of postsecondary degree completion, including associate's degree or higher (15.7% vs 10.7%; difference, 5.0%; 95% CI, 1.0%-9.0%), master's degree (4.2% vs 1.5%; difference, 2.7%; 95% CI, 1.3%-4.1%), and years of education (12.81 vs 12.32; difference, 0.49; 95% CI, 0.20-0.77). Duration of participation showed a consistent linear association with outcomes. Compared with fewer years, preschool to second or third grade participation led to higher rates of associate's degree or higher (18.5% vs 12.5%; difference, 6.0%; 95% CI, 1.0%-11.0%), bachelor's degree (14.3% vs 8.2%; difference, 6.1%; 95% CI, 1.3%-10.9%), and master's degree or higher (5.9% vs 2.3%; difference, 3.6%; 95% CI, 1.4%-5.9%). The pattern of benefits was robust and favored male participants for high school graduation, female participants for college attainment, and those from lower-educated households. Conclusions and Relevance: This study indicates that an established early and continuing intervention is associated with higher midlife postsecondary attainment. Replication and extension of findings to other locations and populations should further strengthen confidence in the health benefits of large-scale preventive interventions.

Predictors of Depressive Symptoms in Emerging Adulthood in a Low-Income Urban Cohort.

This study examined predictors of depressive symptoms in emerging adulthood in a sample of 1,142 individuals (94% African American) who grew up in urban poverty. Data were drawn from a longitudinal study that followed participants from age five and included participant, parent, and teacher surveys, and administrative records. Depressive symptoms were self-reported at age 22-24 using a modified version of the Brief Symptom Inventory (BSI; Derogatis, 1975). Binary logistic regression analyses identified several significant predictors of depressive symptoms in emerging adulthood, including: sex, adverse childhood experiences (ACE) score, socio-emotional adjustment in the classroom, juvenile arrest, and on-time graduation. Significant sex differences were also detected, with the final models fitting the male sample better than the full study or female samples. Implications for future research and intervention are discussed.

Scaling and Sustaining Effective Early Childhood Programs Through School-Family-University Collaboration.

We describe the development, implementation, and evaluation of a comprehensive preschool to third grade prevention program for the goals of sustaining services at a large scale. The Midwest Child-Parent Center (CPC) Expansion is a multilevel collaborative school reform model designed to improve school achievement and parental involvement from ages 3 to 9. By increasing the dosage, coordination, and comprehensiveness of services, the program is expected to enhance the transition to school and promote more enduring effects on well-being in multiple domains. We review and evaluate evidence from two longitudinal studies (Midwest CPC, 2012 to present; Chicago Longitudinal Study, 1983 to present) and four implementation examples of how the guiding principles of shared ownership, committed resources, and progress monitoring for improvement can promote effectiveness. The implementation system of partners and further expansion using "Pay for Success" financing shows the feasibility of scaling the program while continuing to improve effectiveness.

Processes of Early Childhood Interventions to Adult Well-Being.

This article describes the contributions of cognitive-scholastic advantage, family support behavior, and school quality and support as processes through which early childhood interventions promote well-being. Evidence in support of these processes is from longitudinal cohort studies of the Child-Parent Centers and other preventive interventions beginning by age 4. Relatively large effects of participation have been documented for school readiness skills at age 5, parent involvement, K-12 achievement, remedial education, educational attainment, and crime prevention. The three processes account for up to half of the program impacts on well-being. They also help to explain the positive economic returns of many effective programs. The generalizability of these processes is supported by a sizable knowledge base, including a scale up of the Child-Parent Centers.

Childhood Placement in Special Education and Adult Well-Being.

The present study investigates the relationship between childhood placement in special education and adult well-being among 1,377 low-income, minority children participating in the Chicago Longitudinal Study. Roughly 16% of the sample received special education services in grades 1-8. After accounting for sociodemographic factors and early academic achievement, children receiving special education services tended to have lower rates of high school completion and fewer years of education, as well as greater rates of incarceration, substance misuse, and depression. Eighth grade academic achievement significantly mediated the association between childhood placement in special education and adult well-being outcomes. The study contributes to the literature by providing support for a pathway from childhood special education placement to adult outcomes among an inner-city minority cohort.