Efficient development of dinucleotide microsatellite markers in Norway spruce ( Picea abies Karst.) through dot-blot selection.

The development of microsatellite markers can be a time-consuming process, especially in species such as conifers where many microsatellites have been shown to be associated with the repetitive fraction of the genome and to produce complex banding patterns following electrophoresis. Therefore, procedures to eliminate this fraction from further processing are sought. In this paper, we report on the development of 53 dinucleotide SSR markers in Norway spruce, 35 of which (66%) produce simple, polymorphic patterns. This high efficiency is obtained by introducing a dot-blot selection against high copy number sequences, performed on the microsatellite-containing clones. The resulting markers turned out to be polymorphic and useful for population genetic studies and for linkage mapping. Seven additional markers that were not subject to the dot-blot selection are also presented.

In vivo correction of genetic defects of monocyte/macrophages using attenuated Salmonella as oral vectors for targeted gene delivery.

Macrophages are normal targets for Salmonella during natural infections, and it has been demonstrated that attenuated bacteria can deliver nucleic acid vaccine constructs. Therefore, we assessed if attenuated Salmonella can be used for the in vivo delivery of transgenes to their natural cellular target, in an attempt to correct genetic defects associated with monocytes/macrophages. This system would offer the distinct advantage of achieving a specific targeting of defective cells in a non-invasive form. Using a reporter gene, we demonstrated that attenuated Salmonella could be used as an effective in vitro delivery system to transfer genetic material into nondividing cells like murine macrophages. In vivo, the oral administration of attenuated Salmonella allows targeted delivery of transgenes to macrophages and subsequently expression of transgenes at a systemic level. IFNgamma-deficient mice (GKO) were thus selected as a model for the in vivo validation of the Salmonella-based delivery approach. Attenuated Salmonella, used as the carrier for a eukaryotic expression vector encoding the murine IFNgamma gene, was able to restore the production of this cytokine in GKO macrophages. Their oral administration to IFNgamma-deficient mice also re-established, in these immunocompromised animals, the natural resistance to bacterial infections. These results demonstrate, for the first time, that attenuated Salmonella can be successfully used in vivo as a DNA delivery system for the correction of a genetic defect associated with monocyte/macrophages.

Wild-type HFE protein normalizes transferrin iron accumulation in macrophages from subjects with hereditary hemochromatosis.

Hereditary hemochromatosis (HC) is one of the most common single-gene hereditary diseases. A phenotypic hallmark of HC is low iron in reticuloendothelial cells in spite of body iron overload. Most patients with HC have the same mutation, a change of cysteine at position 282 to tyrosine (C282Y) in the HFE protein. The role of HFE in iron metabolism and the basis for the phenotypic abnormalities of HC are not understood. To clarify the role of HFE in the phenotypic expression of HC, we studied monocytes-macrophages from subjects carrying the C282Y mutation in the HFE protein and clinically expressing HC and transfected them with wild-type HFE by using an attenuated Salmonella typhimurium strain as a gene carrier. The Salmonella system allowed us to deliver genes of interest specifically to monocytes-macrophages with high transduction efficiency. The accumulation of (55)Fe delivered by (55)Fe-Tf was significantly lower in macrophages from patients with HC than from controls expressing wild-type HFE. Transfection of HC macrophages with the HFE gene resulted in a high level of expression of HFE protein at the cell surface. The accumulation of (55)Fe delivered by (55)Fe-Tf was raised by 40% to 60%, and this was reflected by an increase in the (55)Fe-ferritin pool within the HFE-transfected cells. These results suggest that the iron-deficient phenotype of HC macrophages is a direct effect of the HFE mutation, and they demonstrate a role for HFE in the accumulation of iron in these cells.

Modulation of host immune responses stimulated by Salmonella vaccine carrier strains by using different promoters to drive the expression of the recombinant antigen.

We evaluated whether immune responses stimulated by Salmonella vaccine carriers can be modulated by using different promoters to drive antigen expression. Mice were orally immunized with strains transfected with plasmids carrying beta-galactosidase (beta-gal) under the control of either a constitutive or an in vivo-activated promoter. While alpha-gal-reactive IgG1, IgG2a, IgG2b and IgG3 were detected in sera of mice immunized with Salmonella expressing constitutively beta-gal, higher titers dominated by IgG2a and IgG2b were detected in sera when the in vivo-activated promoter was used. beta-gal-specific proliferative responses of spleen-derived CD4+ T lymphocytes were similar in both groups. However, CD4+ T lymphocytes from mice immunized with the constitutive promoter secreted IL-4, IL-5, IL-6, IL-10 and IFN-gamma (Th1/Th2 pattern), whereas CD4+ cells mainly secreted IFN-gamma (Th1 pattern) when the second construct was used. The spleens of all immunized mice contained beta-gal-reactive CD8+ CTL precursors. The vaccine prototypes were tested for their capacity to control seeding and/or development within the lung of an intravenously delivered aggressive fibrosarcoma transfected with beta-gal. Reduced metastasis and significantly increased mean survival times were observed in all vaccinated mice. However, protection was improved when the carrier expressed beta-gal upon infection (80 % versus 50% survival, p < 0.05).

Dendritic cells infiltrating tumors cotransduced with granulocyte/macrophage colony-stimulating factor (GM-CSF) and CD40 ligand genes take up and present endogenous tumor-associated antigens, and prime naive mice for a cytotoxic T lymphocyte response.

We transduced BALB/c-derived C-26 colon carcinoma cells with granulocyte/macrophage colony-stimulating factor (GM-CSF) and CD40 ligand (CD40L) genes to favor interaction of these cells with host dendritic cells (DCs) and, therefore, cross-priming. Cotransduced cells showed reduced tumorigenicity, and tumor take was followed by regression in some mice. In vivo tumors were heavily infiltrated with DCs that were isolated, phenotyped, and tested in vitro for stimulation of tumor-specific cytotoxic T lymphocytes (CTLs). BALB/c C-26 carcinoma cells express the endogenous murine leukemia virus (MuLV) env gene as a tumor-associated antigen. This antigen is shared among solid tumors of BALB/c and C57BL/6 mice and contains two epitopes, AH-1 and KSP, recognized in the context of major histocompatibility complex class I molecules H-2Ld and H-2K(b), respectively. DCs isolated from C-26/GM/CD40L tumors grown in (BALB/c x C57BL/6)F1 mice (H-2d x b) stimulated interferon gamma production by both anti-AH-1 and KSP CTLs, whereas tumor-infiltrating DCs (TIDCs) of BALB/c mice stimulated only anti-AH-1 CTLs. Furthermore, TIDCs primed naive mice for CTL activity as early as 2 d after injection into the footpad, whereas double-transduced tumor cells required at least 5 d for priming; this difference may reflect direct DC priming versus indirect tumor cell priming. Immunohistochemical staining indicated colocalization of DCs and apoptotic bodies in the tumors. These data indicate that DCs infiltrating tumors that produce GM-CSF and CD40L can capture cellular antigens, likely through uptake of apoptotic bodies, and mature in situ to a stage suitable for antigen presentation. Thus, tumor cell-based vaccines engineered to favor the interaction with host DCs can be considered.

Salmonella vaccine carrier strains: effective delivery system to trigger anti-tumor immunity by oral route.

Recombinant Salmonella strains expressing heterologous antigens can be delivered by oral route triggering the elicitation of efficient antigen-specific humoral, T helper and cytotoxic responses. The potential of attenuated Salmonella spp. to trigger anti-tumor immunity was evaluated for the first time by using beta-galactosidase (beta-gal) as a model tumor-associated antigen (TAA). Beta-gal was expressed in a Salmonella typhimurium aroA vaccine carrier strain either constitutively or under the control of a promoter activated upon infection. Oral immunization with both vaccine prototypes resulted in the elicitation of beta-gal-specific humoral and cell-mediated immunity. Although both strains were able to trigger antigen-specific CTL, responses were more efficient when the expression was controlled by the promoter activated upon infection. The anti-tumor efficacy of the stimulated response was validated by challenging vaccinated animals with an aggressive fibrosarcoma transfected with beta-gal, which operationally acts as a TAA. Both groups of vaccinated mice exhibited a significant reduction in tumor take and growth with respect to animals vaccinated with plasmidless carrier (p < 0.05). However, the overall efficiency was better in the group in which beta-gal was controlled by the in vivo-activated promoter (85% versus 54%; p < 0.05).

Pathogenicity island 2 mutants of Salmonella typhimurium are efficient carriers for heterologous antigens and enable modulation of immune responses.

The potential use as vaccine delivery system of Salmonella typhimurium strains harboring defined mutations in the sseC (HH104) and sseD (MvP101) genes, which encode putative effector proteins of the type III secretion system of Salmonella pathogenicity island 2, was evaluated and compared with that of the well-characterized aroA mutant strain SL7207 by using beta-galactosidase (beta-Gal) as a model antigen. When orally administered to immune-competent or gamma interferon-deficient (IFN-gamma-/-) BALB/c mice, both mutants were found to be highly attenuated (50% lethal dose, >10(9) bacteria). Both strains were also able to efficiently colonize and persist in Peyer's patches. Immunization with HH104 and MvP101 triggered beta-Gal-specific serum and mucosal antibody responses equivalent to or stronger than those observed in SL7207-immunized mice. Although immunoglobulin G2 (IgG2) serum antibodies were dominant in all groups, IgG1 was also significantly increased in mice vaccinated with MvP101 and SL7207. Comparable beta-Gal-specific IgA and IgG antibodies were detected in intestinal lavages from mice immunized with the different strains. Antigen-specific CD4(+) T-helper cells were generated after vaccination with all vaccine prototypes; however, responses were significantly more efficient when HH104 and MvP101 were used (P < 0.05). Significantly higher levels of IFN-gamma were produced by restimulated spleen cells from mice immunized with HH104 than from those vaccinated with the MvP101 or SL7207 derivatives (P

Gene transfer in dendritic cells, induced by oral DNA vaccination with Salmonella typhimurium, results in protective immunity against a murine fibrosarcoma.

A live attenuated AroA- auxotrophic mutant of Salmonella typhimurium (SL7207) has been used as carrier for the pCMVbeta vector that contains the beta-galactosidase (beta-gal) gene under the control of the immediate early promoter of Cytomegalovirus (CMV). We tested whether orally administered bacterial carrier could enter and deliver the transgene to antigen-presenting cells (APCs) through the natural enteric route of infection and whether beta-gal expression could generate a protective response against an aggressive murine fibrosarcoma transduced with the beta-gal gene (F1.A11) that behaves operationally as a tumor-associated antigen. After three courses, at 15-day intervals, mice developed both cell-mediated and systemic humoral responses to beta-gal. Mice vaccinated with the Salmonella harboring pCMVbeta, but not with plasmid-less carrier, showed resistance to a challenge with F1.A11 cells. These experiments suggest that Salmonella-based DNA immunization allows us to specifically target antigen expression in vivo to APCs. To prove that the transgene is actually expressed by APCs as a function of an eukaryotic promoter, the green fluorescent protein (GFP) was placed under the control of either the eukariotic CMV or a prokaryotic promoter. Using cytofluorometric analysis, GFP was detected only in splenocytes of mice receiving a Salmonella carrier harboring GFP under the CMV promoter. These results indicate that transgene expression occurs because of a Salmonella-mediated gene transfer to eukaryotic cells. Finally, approximately 19% of the splenocytes expressed GFP. Among them, F4/80(+) macrophages and CD11cbright dendritic cells (DCs) were scored as positive for GFP expression. Extensive work has been performed trying to optimize the way to transfect DCs, ex vivo, with genes coding for relevant antigens. We show here, for the first time, that DCs can be directly and specifically transduced in vivo such to induce DNA vaccination against tumors.

Genetic modification of a carcinoma with the IL-4 gene increases the influx of dendritic cells relative to other cytokines.

Tumor cells genetically modified with certain cytokine genes gain immunogenic properties that allow the development of systemic anti-tumor immunity. Whether different cytokines may influence infiltration of transduced tumors by dendritic cells (DC) has not been investigated. Therefore, we analyzed the C26 murine colon carcinoma genetically modified to release interleukin (IL)-2, IL-4, IL-12, granulocyte colony-stimulating-factor (CSF) or granulocyte-macrophage (GM)-CSF for immunostaining with the monoclonal antibody NDLC145 recognizing the DEC205 determinant which, on tumor sections, is virtually restricted to DC. Infiltrating leukocytes were also characterized for expression of co-stimulatory molecules like CD54, CD86 and major histocompatibility complex class II. The intratumoral DC content was dependent on the type of transduced cytokines with C26/IL-4 being the most abundant in DEC205+ cells. The effect of IL-4 in recruiting DC did not depend on the type of tumor since it was confirmed in the TSA mammary carcinoma. In comparison with C26/GM-CSF, C26/IL-4 had more B7.2+ cells but less Ia+ cells. Furthermore, the hypertrophic skin overlaying tumors producing GM-CSF showed numerous Langerhans cells stained by NDLC145 and the draining lymph nodes showed abundance and paucity of DC in C26/GM-CSF and C26/IL-4, respectively. When injected into the ear pinna, C26/GM-CSF stimulated, whereas C26/IL-4 inhibited DC-mediated priming of delayed-type hypersensitivity reaction by 2,4-dinitro-1-fluorobenzene. These findings prove that transduced cytokines differently influence DC recruitment at the tumor site and DC function in nearby tissues. Along with the other leukocytes and their secondary produced cytokines, DC create an environment in which T cells can be differently modulated. Such a phenomenon may have implications on genetic modification of tumor cells to be used as cancer vaccine.

The defined attenuated Listeria monocytogenes delta mp12 mutant is an effective oral vaccine carrier to trigger a long-lasting immune response against a mouse fibrosarcoma.

Listeria monocytogenes has been proposed as a carrier to elicit major histocompatibility complex class-I restricted immune responses able to protect against tumor challenge. In this study the properties of the attenuated L. monocytogenes delta mp12 mutant has been evaluated in vivo against a highly aggressive mouse fibrosarcoma which expresses beta-galactosidase (beta-gal) as a tumor-associated antigen (TAA). Immunization with the vaccine prototypes resulted in both elicitation of specific antibodies and generation of cytotoxic lymphocytes (CTL). Oral vaccination protected 55-64% of the immunized animals from tumor take (p < 0.01) and strongly reduced the average size of the tumor in the other 34-45% (p < 0.01). Vaccinated mice developed a long-lasting response, which resulted in 100% protection from a subsequent tumor challenge. Substitution of the whole TAA by its CTL-defined immunodominant epitope resulted in 43% protection, suggesting a contribution of the humoral response to the observed antitumor effect. No statistically significant differences were observed in the antitumor response when mice were immunized with strains expressing the immunodominant TAA epitope in the context of carrier proteins which were either exported or restricted to the bacterial cytoplasm. This suggests that the topology of the recombinant antigen does not play a major role in the outcome of the protective response.

Murine dendritic cells loaded in vitro with soluble protein prime cytotoxic T lymphocytes against tumor antigen in vivo.

The priming of an immune response against a major histocompatibility complex class I-restricted antigen expressed by nonhematopoietic cells involves the transfer of that antigen to a host bone marrow-derived antigen presenting cell (APC) for presentation to CD8+ T lymphocytes. Dendritic cells (DC), as bone marrow-derived APC, are first candidates for presentation of tumor-associated antigens (TAA). The aim of this study was to see whether DC are able to prime in vivo antigen-specific cytotoxic T lymphocytes after exposure to a soluble protein antigen in vitro. Lacking a well-defined murine TAA, we took advantage of beta-galactosidase (beta-gal)-transduced tumor cell lines as a model in which beta-gal operationally functions as TAA. For in vivo priming both a DC line, transduced or not transduced with the gene coding for murine GM-CSF, and fresh bone marrow-derived DC (bm-DC), loaded in vitro with soluble beta-gal, were used. Priming with either granulocyte macrophage colony-stimulating factor-transduced DC line or fresh bm-DC but not with untransduced DC line generated CTL able to lyse beta-gal-transfected target cells. Furthermore, GM-CSF was necessary for the DC line to efficiently present soluble beta-gal as an H-2Ld-restricted peptide to a beta-gal-specific CTL clone. Data also show that a long-lasting immunity against tumor challenge can be induced using beta-gal-pulsed bm-DC as vaccine. These results indicate that effector cells can be recruited and activated in vivo by antigen-pulsed DC, providing an efficient immune reaction against tumors.

Retroviral immortalization of phagocytic and dendritic cell clones as a tool to investigate functional heterogeneity.

We have developed a method to generate immortalized phagocytic and dendritic cell clones from various mouse tissues such as spleen, thymus, brain and bone marrow. The clones were phenotypically characterized and shown to retain the ability to respond to immune or inflammatory signals, e.g., IFN-gamma. Functional cytokine activity and nitric oxide production were maintained in activated macrophages, microglial and dendritic cell clones. Immune functions, such as antigen presentation was exhibited by all clones whereas tissue-specific properties such as the ability to respond to corticotropin-releasing hormone and produce beta-endorphin was shown in microglial cell clones but not in macrophage cell clones, indicating that heterogeneity of cells of the mononuclear-phagocytic lineage can be maintained in vitro after the immortalization procedure. Moreover, the continuous proliferation of the clones could be inhibited by various stimuli and further differentiation of the cells could be achieved in vitro.

Immortalized dendritic cell line fully competent in antigen presentation initiates primary T cell responses in vivo.

Dendritic cells (DC) can provide all the known costimulatory signals required for activation of unprimed T cells and are the most efficient and perhaps the critical antigen presenting cells in the induction of primary T cell-mediated immune responses. It is now shown that mouse cell lines with many of the features of DC can be generated using the MIB phi 2-N11 retroviral vector transducing a novel envAKR-mycMH2 fusion gene. The immortalized dendritic cell line (CB1) displays most of the morphologic, immunophenotypic, and functional attributes of DC, including constitutive expression of major histocompatibility complex (MHC) class II molecules, costimulatory molecules B7/BB1, heat stable antigen, intracellular adhesion molecule 1, and efficient antigen-presenting ability. Granulocyte/macrophage colony-stimulating factor (GM-CSF) proved to be effective in increasing MHC class II molecule expression and in enhancing presentation of native protein antigens. In comparison with macrophages, CB1 dendritic cells did not exhibit phagocytic and chemotactic activity in response to various stimuli and lipopolysaccharide activation was ineffective in inducing tumor necrosis factor alpha or interleukin 1 beta production. CB1 cells, pulsed with haptens in vitro and injected into naive mice were able to induce delayed-type hypersensitivity responses, further increased with pretreatment with GM-CSF, indicating that these cells may represent an immature, rather than a mature DC. The ability of CB1 to prime T cells in vivo could provide a tool to design novel immunization strategies.

Cloned microglial cells but not macrophages synthesize beta-endorphin in response to CRH activation.

The properties of microglial cell clones, obtained from embryonic mouse brain primary cultures immortalized with recombinant retroviruses, have been investigated and compared with the properties of macrophage clones similarly obtained. Macrophage clones differed from microglial clones in some functions but shared most of the immunological properties. Interestingly, microglial cells were able to produce beta-endorphin, and this production was regulated differently in microglial cell clones when compared with macrophages clones. Although lipopolysaccharide (LPS) treatment induces an increase in beta-endorphin concentration in both cell types, only microglial clones and primary microglial cell cultures respond to the neuroendocrine stimulus corticotropin releasing hormone (CRH). In addition, in these cells, beta-endorphin release is regulated by a classical neurotransmitter, such as noradrenaline, adding some evidence of communication between neurons and microglial cells.

Inhibition of motility of Pseudomonas aeruginosa and Proteus mirabilis by subinhibitory concentrations of azithromycin.

Exposure to subinhibitory concentrations (4-8 micrograms/ml) of azithromycin resulted in loss of motility in Proteus mirabilis strains and a significant reduction of motility in Pseudomonas aeruginosa strains. Examination revealed that the loss of motility was due to a total absence of flagella in Proteus mirabilis while the poor motility observed in Pseudomonas aeruginosa was due to absence of flagella in the majority of the population. Since motility may be considered a pathogenicity trait in the two species, these results confirm the unusual ability of azithromycin to reduce the expression of virulence factors in gram-negative pathogens.

New tools for investigating macrophage differentiation.

Mouse macrophage clones were generated from liver, bone marrow, spleen, thymus and brain by in vitro immortalization of primary cultures with VN11 recombinant retroviruses, transducing an avian v-myc oncogene. Tissue macrophages from eight different strains of mice were immortalized. All macrophage clones obtained thus far constitutively expressed F4/80, Mac-1, Mac-2 and Fc receptors. Class II MHC molecules were induced with IFN gamma. Constitutive and inducible functional activities of macrophages were retained in most of the clones; phagocytosis, chemotaxis, adhesion properties, cytokine production, MHC expression, cytotoxicity and toxic reactive nitrogen intermediate synthesis were all preserved. A model for studying macrophage differentiation in vitro using cloned cells is presented.

Synergistic antibacterial interaction of cefotaxime and desacetylcefotaxime.

Cefotaxime (CTX) is metabolized in desacetylcefotaxime (dCTX), a less potent compound which shows, however, a higher stability against selected beta-lactamases produced by Gram-negative organisms. The aim of this study was to verify if the antimicrobial activity of CTX against 260 clinical aerobic and anaerobic pathogens isolated in our institution was enhanced by its metabolic derivative dCTX. The combination of CTX and dCTX, assessed by checkerboard titration, was completely or partially synergistic towards 61% of the 220 aerobic organisms tested and against 68% of the 40 Bacteroides strains analyzed. In addition we have investigated, by the time-kill method, the in-vitro interactions against 50 aerobic strains of CTX and dCTX alone and in combination with netilmicin, a drug often employed in severe infections in combination with beta-lactam agents in order to provide effective killing of resistant nosocomial pathogens. Time-kill studies indicated that 36% of the aerobic nosocomial strains were synergistically inhibited by the combination of CTX/dCTX with netilmicin. These results indicate that dCTX makes an important contribution to the clinical efficacy of CTX.

Post-antibiotic effect of azithromycin on respiratory tract pathogens.

Azithromycin is a new azalide antibiotic with structural modifications that confer to the molecule acid stability, extension of antibacterial spectrum that includes important Gram-negative pathogens, long elimination half-life, and tendency to concentrate into various tissues where it persists for extended periods of time. The existence and length of a post-antibiotic effect (PAE), an important parameter for the characterization of new antibiotic molecules, has not yet been evaluated for this agent. In this study the PAE of azithromycin was assessed against representative respiratory pathogens included in the in vitro antimicrobial activity of the drug. The results obtained indicate that azithromycin produce a significant PAE on all Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria tested, resulting in an average value of 3.5 h for both S. pyogenes and S. pneumoniae, 3 h for B. catarrhalis and H. influenzae, and 2 h for Klebsiella spp. These findings support previous reports underlining the remarkable in vitro activity of azithromycin against H. influenzae, a pathogen poorly susceptible to the classical macrolides. Furthermore, the present demonstration of the existence of a long PAE of azithromycin against other Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria extends the pharmacokinetic advantages of the drug and strongly supports the application of this azalide in the therapy of respiratory infections.

Dactimicin, a new aminoglycoside: in vitro activity, post-antibiotic effect and interaction with other antibiotics.

The in vitro activity of the new aminoglycoside dactimicin in comparison to amikacin was tested alone and in combination with piperacillin, mezlocillin and ceftazidime against freshly isolated clinical pathogens. Dactimicin was more active than amikacin against Enterobacter cloacae, Providencia rettgeri and Salmonella spp., and less active than amikacin against Escherichia coli, Pseudomonas aeruginosa and Acinetobacter anitratus. Using the checkerboard technique, the combination of either dactimicin or amikacin with the other drugs was shown to result in synergistic interaction against most of the 23 strains tested. Dactimicin-ceftazidime and amikacin-ceftazidime were the most effective combinations, demonstrating synergism against 91% and 95% of the isolates respectively. Antagonism was not encountered. Using the time-kill method, synergism was seen in most cases, indifference rarely being seen; antagonism was not observed. Dactimicin induced a post-antibiotic effect which ranged from 1 h for Enterobacter cloacae to 2.4 h for Escherichia coli. An average post-antibiotic effect of 0.6 h was also seen when dactimicin was combined with piperacillin, mezlocillin and ceftazidime. The findings indicate that dactimicin compares favorably in vitro with amikacin and suggest that clinical trials with this drug alone or in combination are warranted.