Requirement of transforming growth factor beta-activated kinase 1 for transforming growth factor beta-induced alpha-smooth muscle actin expression and extracellular matrix contraction in fibroblasts.

OBJECTIVE: Fibrosis is believed to occur through normal tissue remodeling failing to terminate. Tissue repair intimately involves the ability of fibroblasts to contract extracellular matrix (ECM), and enhanced ECM contraction is a hallmark of fibrotic cells in various conditions, including scleroderma. Some fibrogenic transcriptional responses to transforming growth factor beta (TGFbeta), including alpha-smooth muscle actin (alpha-SMA) expression and ECM contraction, require focal adhesion kinase/Src (FAK/Src). The present study was undertaken to assess whether TGFbeta-activated kinase 1 (TAK1) acts downstream of FAK/Src to mediate fibrogenic responses in fibroblasts. METHODS: We used microarray, real-time polymerase chain reaction, Western blot, and collagen gel contraction assays to assess the ability of wild-type and TAK1-knockout fibroblasts to respond to TGFbeta1. RESULTS: The ability of TGF to induce TAK1 was blocked by the FAK/Src inhibitor PP2. JNK phosphorylation in response to TGFbeta1 was impaired in the absence of TAK1. TGFbeta could not induce matrix contraction or expression of a group of fibrotic genes, including alpha-SMA, in the absence of TAK1. CONCLUSION: These results suggest that TAK1 operates downstream of FAK/Src in mediating fibrogenic responses and that targeting of TAK1 may be a viable antifibrotic strategy in the treatment of certain disorders, including scleroderma.

Regulation of CCN2 mRNA expression and promoter activity in activated hepatic stellate cells.

The matricellular protein connective tissue growth factor (CCN2) is considered a faithful marker of fibroblast activation in wound healing and in fibrosis. CCN2 is induced during activation of hepatic stellate cells (HSC). Here, we investigate the molecular basis of CCN2 gene expression in HSC. Fluoroscence activated cell sorting was used to investigate CCN2 expression in HSC in vivo in mice treated with CCl(4). CCN2 and TGF-beta mRNA expression were assessed by polymerase chain reaction as a function of culture-induced activation of HSC. CCN2 promoter/reporter constructs were used to map cis-acting elements required for basal and TGFbeta-induced CCN2 promoter activity. Real-time polymerase chain reaction analysis was used to further clarify signaling pathways required for CCN2 expression in HSC. CCl(4) administration in vivo increased CCN2 production by HSC. In vitro, expression of CCN2 and TGF-beta mRNA were concommitantly increased in mouse HSC between days 0 and 14 of culture. TGFbeta-induced CCN2 promoter activity required the Smad and Ets-1 elements in the CCN2 promoter and was reduced by TGFbeta type I receptor (ALK4/5/7) inhibition. CCN2 overexpression in activated HSC was ALK4/5/7-dependent. As CCN2 overexpression is a faithful marker of fibrogenesis, our data are consistent with the notion that signaling through TGFbeta type I receptors such as ALK5 contributes to the activation of HSC and hence ALK4/5/7 inhibition would be expected to be an appropriate treatment for liver fibrosis.

Heparan sulfate-dependent ERK activation contributes to the overexpression of fibrotic proteins and enhanced contraction by scleroderma fibroblasts.

OBJECTIVE: To investigate the contribution of heparan sulfate proteoglycan and Ras/MEK/ERK to the overexpression of profibrotic proteins and the enhanced contractile ability of dermal fibroblasts from patients with systemic sclerosis (SSc; scleroderma). METHODS: The effects of the MEK/ERK inhibitor U0126, the heparan sulfate side chain formation inhibitor beta-xyloside, and soluble heparin on the overexpression of profibrotic genes were compared in fibroblasts from lesional skin of patients with diffuse SSc and fibroblasts from healthy control subjects. Identified protein expressions were compared with the contractile abilities of fibroblasts while they resided within a collagen lattice. Forces generated were measured using a culture force monitor. RESULTS: Inhibiting MEK/ERK with U0126 significantly reduced expression of a cohort of proadhesive and procontractile proteins that normally are overexpressed by scleroderma fibroblasts, including integrin alpha4 and integrin beta1. Antagonizing heparan sulfate side chain formation with beta-xyloside or the addition of soluble heparin prevented ERK activation, in addition to reducing the expression of these proadhesive/contractile proteins. Treatment with either U0126, beta-xyloside, or heparin resulted in a reduction in the overall peak contractile force generated by dermal fibroblasts. Blocking platelet-derived growth factor receptor with Gleevec (imatinib mesylate) reduced overall contractile ability and the elevated syndecan 4 expression and ERK activation in SSc fibroblasts. CONCLUSION: The results of this study suggest that heparan sulfate-dependent ERK activation contributes to the enhanced contractile ability demonstrated by dermal fibroblasts from lesional skin of patients with scleroderma. These results are consistent with the notion that the MEK/ERK procontractile pathway is dysregulated in scleroderma dermal fibroblasts. Additionally, the results suggest that antagonizing the MEK/ERK pathway is likely to modulate heparan sulfate proteoglycan activity, which in turn may have a profound effect on the fibrotic response in SSc.

Focal adhesion kinase/Src suppresses early chondrogenesis: central role of CCN2.

Adhesive signaling plays a key role in cellular differentiation, including in chondrogenesis. Herein, we probe the contribution to early chondrogenesis of two key modulators of adhesion, namely focal adhesion kinase (FAK)/Src and CCN2 (connective tissue growth factor, CTGF). We use the micromass model of chondrogenesis to show that FAK/Src signaling, which mediates cell/matrix attachment, suppresses early chondrogenesis, including the induction of Ccn2, Agc, and Sox6. The FAK/Src inhibitor PP2 elevates Ccn2, Agc, and Sox6 expression in wild-type mesenchymal cells in micromass culture, but not in cells lacking CCN2. Our results suggest a reduction in FAK/Src signaling is a critical feature permitting chondrogenic differentiation and that CCN2 operates downstream of this loss to promote chondrogenesis.

Src kinase inhibition promotes the chondrocyte phenotype.

Regulated differentiation of chondrocytes is essential for both normal skeletal development and maintenance of articular cartilage. The intracellular pathways that control these events are incompletely understood, and our ability to modulate the chondrocyte phenotype in vivo or in vitro is therefore limited. Here we examine the role played by one prominent group of intracellular signalling proteins, the Src family kinases, in regulating the chondrocyte phenotype. We show that the Src family kinase Lyn exhibits a dynamic expression pattern in the chondrogenic cell line ATDC5 and in a mixed population of embryonic mouse chondrocytes in high-density monolayer culture. Inhibition of Src kinase activity using the pharmacological compound PP2 (4-Amino-5-(4-chlorophenyl)-7-(t-butyl)pyrazolo [3,4-d]pyrimidine) strongly reduced the number of primary mouse chondrocytes. In parallel, PP2 treatment increased the expression of both early markers (such as Sox9, collagen type II, aggrecan and xylosyltransferases) and late markers (collagen type X, Indian hedgehog and p57) markers of chondrocyte differentiation. Interestingly, PP2 repressed the expression of the Src family members Lyn, Frk and Hck. It also reversed morphological de-differentiation of chondrocytes in monolayer culture and induced rounding of chondrocytes, and reduced stress fibre formation and focal adhesion kinase phosphorylation. We conclude that the Src kinase inhibitor PP2 promotes chondrogenic gene expression and morphology in monolayer culture. Strategies to block Src activity might therefore be useful both in tissue engineering of cartilage and in the maintenance of the chondrocyte phenotype in diseases such as osteoarthritis.

FAK is required for TGFbeta-induced JNK phosphorylation in fibroblasts: implications for acquisition of a matrix-remodeling phenotype.

Transforming growth factor beta (TGFbeta) plays a critical role in connective tissue remodeling by fibroblasts during development, tissue repair, and fibrosis. We investigated the molecular pathways in the transmission of TGFbeta signals that lead to features of connective tissue remodeling, namely formation of an alpha-smooth muscle actin (alpha-SMA) cytoskeleton, matrix contraction, and expression of profibrotic genes. TGFbeta causes the activation of focal adhesion kinase (FAK), leading to JNK phosphorylation. TGFbeta induces JNK-dependent actin stress fiber formation, matrix contraction, and expression of profibrotic genes in fak+/+, but not fak-/-, fibroblasts. Overexpression of MEKK1, a kinase acting upstream of JNK, rescues TGFbeta responsiveness of JNK-dependent transcripts and actin stress fiber formation in FAK-deficient fibroblasts. Thus we propose a FAK-MEKK1-JNK pathway in the transmission of TGFbeta signals leading to the control of alpha-SMA cytoskeleton reorganization, matrix contraction, and profibrotic gene expression and hence to the physiological and pathological effects of TGFbeta on connective tissue remodeling by fibroblasts.

CCN2 is necessary for adhesive responses to transforming growth factor-beta1 in embryonic fibroblasts.

CCN2 is induced by transforming growth factor-beta (TGFbeta) in fibroblasts and is overexpressed in connective tissue disease. CCN2 has been proposed to be a downstream mediator of TGFbeta action in fibroblasts; however, the role of CCN2 in regulating this process unclear. By using embryonic fibroblasts isolated from ccn2-/- mice, we showed that CCN2 is required for a subset of responses to TGFbeta. Affymetrix genome-wide expression profiling revealed that 942 transcripts were induced by TGFbeta greater than 2-fold in ccn2+/+ fibroblasts, of which 345 were not induced in ccn2-/- fibroblasts, including pro-adhesive and matrix remodeling genes. Whereas TGFbeta properly induced a generic Smad3-responsive promoter in ccn2-/- fibroblasts, TGFbeta-induced activation of focal adhesion kinase (FAK) and Akt was reduced in ccn2-/- fibroblasts. Emphasizing the importance of FAK and Akt activation in CCN2-dependent transcriptional responses to TGFbeta in fibroblasts, CCN2-dependent transcripts were not induced by TGFbeta in fak-/- fibroblasts and were reduced by wortmannin in wild-type fibroblasts. Akt1 overexpression in ccn2-/- fibroblasts rescued the TGFbeta-induced transcription of CCN2-dependent mRNA. Finally, induction of TGFbeta-induced fibroblast adhesion to fibronectin and type I collagen was significantly diminished in ccn2-/- fibroblasts. Thus in embryonic fibroblasts, CCN2 is a necessary cofactor required for TGFbeta to activate the adhesive FAK/Akt/phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase cascade, FAK/Akt-dependent genes, and adhesion to matrix.