Working memory moderates the association between condom use intentions and behavior among moderate-to-heavy drinking men who have sex with men.

Men who have sex with men (MSM) are a high-risk population for HIV infection and this risk is increased for those who consume alcohol. Condomless anal intercourse (CAI) is the central transmission risk factor for this population. This study examined whether individual differences in working memory moderated the association between intentions to use condoms and the frequency of CAI among MSM who engaged in anal intercourse over a subsequent 6-week period. Moderate- and heavy-drinking MSM (n = 207) completed questionnaires regarding alcohol use and condom use intentions and an operation span task to assess working memory at baseline. Participants then completed 6 weeks of morning surveys via a mobile phone app to assess anal intercourse frequency with and without condoms. Negative binomial regression analyses showed that the association between intentions to use condoms and episodes of CAI during the monitoring period was moderated by working memory such that intentions predicted CAI for those high in working memory but not those low in working memory. These results support the view that self-reported intentions may be less-likely to translate into health behaviors among those with poorer executive functioning skills.

Working memory moderates the association between perceived norms and heavy episodic drinking among college students.

Heavy episodic drinking (4+/5+ drinks/occasion for females/males) is highly prevalent among college students and is influenced by social factors. Among these social risk factors, perceived peer drinking norms have been shown to significantly predict heavy episodic drinking across a number of studies. However, there is little known about which students may be most and least susceptible to these influences or why individual differences may moderate the impact of norms on heavy drinking. Recent work has suggested self-control may be an important individual difference factor in this regard. Working memory (WM) is a central component of self-control that has been shown to buffer the effect of social influence variables. This study examined whether WM, as measured by memory span tasks, moderates the relationship between perceived drinking norms and alcohol use among college students reporting one or more past month drinking occasions (n = 98). Hierarchical linear regression analyses were used to examine whether WM significantly moderated the relationship between perceived norms and heavy drinking episodes (HDEs) as well as number of drinking days in the past month. Analyses revealed a significant WM x norms interaction for both drinking indices. Simple slopes analyses suggested a buffering effect of WM as higher perceived norms predicted more HDEs and drinking days at low (-1SD) and mean WM scores but not high (+1SD) WM. These results suggest WM serves as a protective factor for the influence of norms such that individuals high in WM may be more able to inhibit the impact of norms on alcohol use.

Readiness-to-change as a moderator of a web-based brief intervention for marijuana among students identified by health center screening.

INTRODUCTION: Electronic screening and brief intervention has been identified as a low cost strategy to address marijuana use among students, however there is little known about who may be most responsive to this intervention approach. This study examined whether readiness-to-change moderated the influence of a web-based intervention on frequency of use at 3-month outcomes. METHODS: One-hundred twenty-three students who smoked marijuana at least monthly were identified by screening in a student health center. Baseline and 3-month outcome assessments were conducted on-line. Participants were randomly assigned to either eCHECKUP TO GO-marijuana or a control condition after completing marijuana measures and the Readiness-to-Change Questionnaire (RTCQ). Negative binomial regression analyses were conducted to examine whether the effect of the intervention on marijuana use at 3-month outcomes was moderated by the Action and Problem Recognition dimensions of the RTCQ, adjusting for baseline use. RESULTS: Analyses showed a significant Intervention × Action interaction. Probing of interaction effects showed that among those with high scores on the Action scale participants in the intervention group reported significantly fewer days of use than those in the control condition at follow-up (IRR=0.53, 95%CI: 0.94, 2.08). The Problem Recognition dimension did not moderate the influence of the intervention on outcomes. CONCLUSION: These results suggest that this eSBI may bolster change efforts among students who have begun taking steps toward changing their marijuana use.

The influence of depressive symptoms on alcohol use among HIV-infected Russian drinkers.

BACKGROUND: Depressive symptoms have been linked to HIV progression through a number of biobehavioral mechanisms including increased alcohol use. Although research supports an association between alcohol use and depressive symptoms among HIV patients, there have been few studies that have examined whether depressive symptoms predict subsequent drinking, especially among heavy drinking HIV-infected patients. METHOD: Heavy drinking Russian HIV-infected patients (n=700) were recruited from addiction and HIV care settings for a randomized controlled trial of a risk reduction intervention [HERMITAGE]. GEE overdispersed Poisson regression analyses were conducted to assess the association between depressive symptoms and alcohol consumption 6-months later. RESULTS: In adjusted analyses, depressive symptom severity was significantly associated with drinks per day (global p=.02). Compared to the non-depressed category, mild depressive symptoms were significantly associated with more drinks per day [IRR=1.55, (95% CI: 1.14, 2.09)], while moderate [IRR=1.14, (95% CI: 0.83, 1.56)] and severe [IRR=1.48, (95% CI: 0.93, 2.34)] depressive symptoms were not. Associations between depressive symptom severity and heavy drinking days were not statistically significant (global p=.19). Secondary analyses using the BDI-II screening threshold (BDI-II>14) and the BDI-II cognitive subscale suggested an association between depressive symptoms and drinks per day over time but not heavy episodic drinking. CONCLUSIONS: Among heavy drinking HIV-infected patients, elevated depressive symptoms were associated with greater subsequent alcohol use. These findings suggest that depressive symptoms may be important to address in efforts to reduce alcohol-related risks among HIV-infected populations.

Individual differences in temptation and responses to alcohol cues.

OBJECTIVE: Research on the Temptation and Restraint Inventory has established that the Temptation factor is associated with greater use of alcohol, more alcohol-related problems, and more severe symptoms of alcohol dependence. However, there is little known about the mechanisms by which Temptation may be associated with these higher levels of alcohol involvement. The present study was designed to examine how individual differences in Temptation are associated with responses to alcohol cues. METHOD: Eighty-nine hazardous drinkers were exposed to the sight and smell of their favorite alcoholic beverage, attempted to control their urges, and then participated in a beer taste test. Subjective experience, alcohol-related cognitive processing, and behavioral responses were assessed in the context of these cues. RESULTS: Hierarchical regression analyses showed that Temptation was associated with stronger urges to drink alcohol, greater difficulty controlling urges, and increased alcohol consumption, even when controlling for alcohol consumption in the past month. CONCLUSIONS: The findings suggest that Temptation has utility for predicting responses to alcohol cues among hazardous drinkers even when the effects of typical drinking patterns are accounted for. Moreover, the results suggest that individuals who exhibit high levels of Temptation may be particularly reactive to anticipatory cues for alcohol consumption.

Negative emotional expectancies and readiness to change among college student binge drinkers.

While expectancies are considered to be an important cognitive variable in the etiology and maintenance of substance use, less is known about their role in attitudes toward addictive behavior change. It has recently been suggested that negative alcohol expectancies, in particular, might play a fundamental role in motivation to change. Among a population of college student binge drinkers, the differential ability of positive and negative expectancies to predict total readiness to change (RTC) scores was examined. Hierarchical regression analyses revealed that controlling for level of consumption and number of drinking-related problems, negative and not positive expectancies significantly predicted RTC. In an examination of expectancy subtypes, negative emotional expectancies emerged as the only significant predictor of change motivation. Possible explanations for the findings and implications for interventions with undergraduate heavy drinkers are discussed.

Positive alcohol expectancies and drinking behavior: the influence of expectancy strength and memory accessibility.

College student drinkers (N = 314) participated in a health survey in which they (a) completed an alcohol-related memory association task (expectancy accessibility measure), (b) rated their positive expectancies about alcohol use (expectancy strength measure), and (c) reported their level of alcohol involvement. Hierarchical regression analyses showed that both expectancy accessibility and expectancy strength predicted frequency of alcohol use and alcohol-related problems. Moreover, moderational analyses showed that the association between expectancy strength and frequency of alcohol use was greater for those who generated more alcohol responses on the expectancy association task. These findings suggest that the outcome association measure and Likert scale ratings of expectancies may assess distinct properties of expectancy representations, which may have independent and interactive effects on different aspects of drinking behavior.

Social influence processes and college student drinking: the mediational role of alcohol outcome expectancies.

OBJECTIVE: Social influences are among the most robust predictors of adolescent substance use and misuse. Studies with early adolescent samples have supported the need to distinguish among various types of social influences to better delineate relations between social factors and alcohol use and problems. METHOD: The first major goal of the present study (N = 399, 263 women) was to examine unique relations between particular facets of social influence and alcohol use and problems in a relatively heavy-drinking population (i.e., college students). We hypothesized that active social influences (offers to drink alcohol) and passive social influences (social modeling and perceived norms) would demonstrate positive associations with measures of alcohol use and problems. We also tested the hypothesis that alcohol outcome expectancies would mediate associations between social influences and drinking behaviors. RESULTS: Structural equation modeling analyses provided strong support for the first hypothesis. Social modeling demonstrated the strongest association with alcohol use and problems, and active social influences demonstrated significant associations with both use and problems. Perceived norms were related to alcohol use, but not directly with alcohol problems. Support for the second hypothesis was positive but limited to one type of social influence. Strong evidence for a mediational role of outcome expectancies was found for relations between social modeling and alcohol use and problems. CONCLUSIONS: Together, these findings demonstrate the unique and relative contribution of active and passive social influences and provide limited support for a hypothesized process by which social factors influence cognitions and alcohol-related behaviors.

Effects of nicotine deprivation on alcohol-related information processing and drinking behavior.

This study examined the influence of smoking cues and nicotine deprivation on responses to alcohol among hazardous drinkers. Fifty-six daily smoking, hazardous drinkers were exposed to either smoking cues or control cues after either 6 hr of nicotine deprivation or no deprivation. Urges to drink alcohol, alcohol-related cognitive processing, and alcohol consumption were assessed after cue exposure. Results indicated that nicotine deprivation increased urges to drink, the accessibility of alcohol outcome expectancies, and the volume of alcohol consumed. There was little influence of the smoking cue manipulation on these processes. Implications for understanding the mechanisms underlying alcohol-tobacco interactions are discussed.

Influence of naltrexone on cue-elicited craving among hazardous drinkers: the moderational role of positive outcome expectancies.

This study was designed to elucidate mechanisms by which naltrexone (NTX) influences drinking among hazardous drinkers. Thirty-six hazardous drinkers received 50 mg NTX or placebo on 2 separate occasions before participation in a taste test procedure with low-alcohol beer. Urges to drink before consumption, beer volume consumed, and perceived stimulation and sedation after consumption were assessed. Although NTX did not influence beer consumption, hazardous drinkers who reported high positive reinforcement expectancies rated their urges to drink as significantly lower when they were on NTX compared with placebo. Positive outcome expectancies also moderated the effects of NTX on subjective reports of stimulation following drinking. These findings suggest that naltrexone may be particularly effective at reducing alcohol cue-elicited positive reinforcement for those with high positive alcohol outcome expectancies.

Effects of naltrexone on alcohol self-administration in heavy drinkers.

The mechanisms underlying the suppressant effects of naltrexone (NTX) on ad libitum alcohol drinking in a bar/restaurant setting were investigated in heavy beer drinkers. Fifty-one male and female heavy drinkers (mean age = 22) received 50 mg of NTX or placebo (PBO), p.o., on two separate occasions in a randomized, double-blind crossover protocol. After 7 days of taking medication, subjects were provided with the opportunity to consume beer ad libitum during two, 90-min test sessions that were held 1 to 2 weeks apart. Blood samples were collected on test days to ensure medication compliance and to measure blood levels of NTX and the active beta-naltrexol. Less beer was consumed during NTX treatment. NTX decreased urges to consume alcohol. NTX-treated subjects also took significantly longer to finish each glass of beer and were more likely to terminate beer drinking early. Self-report stimulation and ratings of positive mood states were lower during NTX treatment. Negative side effects of NTX, such as nausea and headache, were reported more frequently with NTX. Not all of the subjects decreased their beer intake on NTX, and some subjects drank more beer. Nonresponders to NTX were not related to blood levels of the active metabolite beta-naltrexol or to a family history of alcoholism. Overall, the results of this study suggest that NTX affects a number of the components of alcohol drinking sequence, including lowering cravings, decreasing the positive reinforcing effects of alcohol, and increasing headache and nausea, each of which may contribute to reducing alcohol intake.

Prepulse inhibition of the startle reflex: preliminary study of the effects of a low dose of alcohol in humans.

The present study was designed to examine the effects of a low dose of alcohol on prepulse inhibition (PPI) of the startle response and self-report measures of affect. Eighteen subjects participated in a counterbalanced repeated-measures design in which they received a beverage with alcohol during one session and a nonalcohol beverage during a different experimental session. The startle response was probed in two separate 10-min blocks immediately after consumption of the alcohol. Although alcohol significantly suppressed the startle response in general, it did not do so to an extent that compromised detection of PPI. The effects of alcohol on PPI were primarily evident in the first block and were dependent on baseline levels of PPI, such that alcohol resulted in a reduction of PPI in subjects who demonstrated low PPI at baseline and an increase in PPI for subjects with high PPI at baseline. Alcohol also significantly increased self-reported stimulation during the first block and increased negative affect during the second block. These findings suggest that baseline PPI may reflect an important individual difference that is predictive of the direction and magnitude of alcohol-induced changes in sensorimotor gating.

Anger coping styles and perceived social support.

This study was based on the hypothesis that perceived availability of social support, independent of the influence of social desirability, would be inversely related to both anger-in and anger-out coping styles. Participants were 101 college-aged Caucasians in the Northeast. In a regression analysis, the anger coping scales together accounted for 9% of the unique variance in total social support. Anger-in, but not anger-out, was a significant predictor of social support independent of the effects of social desirability. In addition, anger-in, independent of response bias, was inversely related to deficiencies in appraisal support, self-esteem support, tangible support, and belongingness support. These findings were interpreted in the context of the psychosocial vulnerability model of disease risk, which suggests that deficits in perceived social support may represent a diathesis for ill health among individuals exhibiting an anger-suppression coping style.

Effects of suppressing the urge to drink on the accessibility of alcohol outcome expectancies.

Previous work has shown that attempts to deliberately suppress a given thought is associated with heightened accessibility of thought-related information both during and following suppression (Wegner, 1994, Psychological Review, 101, 34-52). This study examined whether attempts to suppress the urge for alcohol would similarly be associated with heightened accessibility of alcohol-related information. Heavy social drinkers were exposed to the sight and smell of their usual alcoholic beverage either under the instructions to suppress their urge to drink alcohol or without such instruction. Following this task, participants were asked to make timed judgements about the applicability of a series of alcohol outcome expectancies. Results supported the view that suppression increases the accessibility of information in memory. Those in the Suppression condition were faster to endorse alcohol outcome expectancies following the exposure to alcohol cues than those in the Control condition. Findings are discussed in terms of cognitive strategies for regulating alcohol use and patterns of restrained drinking.

Psychosocial factors in premenstrual dysphoria: stressors, appraisal, and coping processes.

Relationships between event content of daily stressors, appraisal of daily stressors, coping processes, and menstrual cycle phase were examined in women with premenstrual dysphoria (PMD) and controls. Seventy-eight women completed the Daily Rating Form, the Daily Coping Scale and the Multiple Affect Adjective Checklist-Revised on a daily basis during the premenstrual and postmenstrual phases. No premenstrual-postmenstrual differences in frequency of occurrence of stressors were reported. Academic and interpersonal stressors were the most frequently reported stressors during both cycle phases. PMD women appraised daily stressors as being more stressful, undesirable, and changeable premenstrually than postmenstrually as compared to controls. Catharsis was used more frequently premenstrually as compared to postmenstrually by PMD women. Premenstrually, women with PMD sought social support more frequently than controls. Interactive relationships between appraisal and coping style varied as a function of cycle phase for PMD women. A state-dependent model of menstrual-related mood changes is supported.

Housing influences exploration and social interaction of control and DSP-4-treated rats.

Exploratory behavior and social interaction were investigated in rats that were reared in different social environments following neonatal injection with either water vehicle or the norepinephrine neurotoxin, DSP-4. At weaning, they were placed in a familiar or novel bedding type and were housed in either vehicle control-only, DSP-4-only, or mixed vehicle control and DSP-4 groups for 10 days. They were then observed in three different situations: the home cage, the cage of an unfamiliar rat, and an open field. Compared to rats housed in vehicle control-only or DSP-4-only groups, rats housed in mixed DSP-4 and vehicle control groups showed elevated exploration behavior in the home cage. Also, rats housed in mixed groups in the familiar bedding, but not the novel one, showed abnormally low levels of rearing in an open field test and reduced social interaction with unfamiliar rats. The implications of these results for a new animal model of anxiety are discussed.

Impaired hoarding and olfactory learning in DSP-4-treated rats and control cagemates.

The possibility that variables affecting rats' home-cage odor preferences also influence hoarding behavior was examined. Neonatal male rats were injected SC with the noradrenergic neurotoxin, N-(2-chloroethyl)-N-ethyl-2-bromobenzylamine (DSP-4), or with vehicle. At weaning, rats were assigned to control-only, DSP-4-only, or mixed groups of DSP-4 and control rats. For the next 10 days, half the rats in each social condition were housed in cedar shavings, and remaining rats were housed in pine. Exposure to cedar significantly increased preference for the odor in control-only groups, but not in DSP-4-only or mixed treatment groups. Control-only groups also hoarded significantly more pellets per animal than rats in the other two social conditions. The results suggest that both olfactory adaptation and hoarding can be impaired by either neonatal NE depletion or an abnormal social environment.

Effects of amnesic doses of reserpine or syrosingopine on mouse brain acetylcholine levels.

The effects of reserpine and syrosingopine on mouse whole brain acetylcholine levels were examined. At 2 or 24 hr following injection, the brains were removed and analyzed by mass spectrometry. No differences were found between drug-treated and control mice in the acetylcholine content of the brain at either time interval. The results suggest that whole brain acetylcholine levels do not predict the amnesic effects of either reserpine or syrosingopine.

Effect of l-dopa or bromocriptine on feeding and motor behavior of rats with lesions in the globus pallidus.

Rats were lesioned bilaterally in the globus pallidus (GP) with anodal current or 6-OHDA, and were observed in various motor tests 10 min daily for 3 weeks. Body weight, home cage water and food intakes were recorded daily under two different food accessibility conditions. The lesions produced adipsia, aphagia, loss of body weight and motor impairments which could not be reversed by either l-dopa or bromocriptine. Animals could be made to recover, however, by making food easily accessible and palatable. The results do not support a "metabolic" role for the GP but support the idea that aphagia, adipsia and mortality is due to motoric impairments produced by the lesion.

The effect of reserpine, syrosingopine, and guanethidine on the retention of discriminated escape reversal: peripherally administered catecholamines cannot reverse the reserpine amnesia in this situation.

In a series of experiments, the effects of reserpine, syrosingopine, and guanethidine on retention of a discriminated escape reversal training were investigated in mice. The peripherally and centrally acting reserpine produced amnesia while the primarily peripherally acting compounds, syrosingopine or guanethidine, did not produce amnesia even when given in high dosages or when training was given with low footshock. Unlike in the passive avoidance situation, peripherally administered norepinephrine or dopamine was not able to attenuate the reserpine-induced amnesia. The results were discussed in terms of the role of biogenic amines in memory formation.