Diet-Related Attitudes, Beliefs, and Well-Being in Adolescents with a Vegetarian Lifestyle.

Vegetarianism can meet healthy, ethical, or ecological values (such as equality and protection of animals or the environment). At the same time, it can represent a response to the need for self-determination in adolescence. Furthermore, some studies show vegetarians have greater depressive risk and a lower sense of body satisfaction. Considering the spread of non-meat diets in the Western world, researchers have investigated the benefits and risks to physical and psychological health. Despite this, few studies have been conducted on factors influencing adolescent's vegetarian diet-related attitudes. Through self-administered loosely structured interviews, this research investigated factors potentially associated with vegetarian choices in adolescence. It checked (a) gender differences in vegetarian choices; (b) religious, familial, ethical, or health factors implied in vegetarian choices; and (c) indicators of well-being among young vegetarians. The findings suggest that for our sample, non-vegetarians have lower scores on health-related questions than others, while for vegetarian adolescents, the benefits of vegetarianism mainly depend on their ethical stances, beliefs, and values. Conversely, it is unrelated to factors such as the desire to lose weight, dissatisfaction about one's body shape, or depressive feelings.

Epilepsy: A Multifaced Spectrum Disorder.

Epilepsy is one of the most widespread chronic conditions, affecting about 50 million people worldwide [...].

The Role of Guilt and Empathy on Prosocial Behavior.

Research on the effects of guilt on interpersonal relationships has shown that guilt frequently motivates prosocial behavior in dyadic social situations. When multiple persons are involved, however, this emotion can be disadvantageous for other people in the social environment. Two experiments were carried out to examine the effect of guilt and empathy on prosocial behavior in a context in which more than two people are involved. Experiment 1 investigates whether, in three-person situations, guilt motivates prosocial behavior with beneficial effects for the victim of one's actions but disadvantageous effects for the third individual. Participants were faced with a social dilemma in which they could choose to take action that would benefit themselves, the victim, or the other individual. The findings show that guilt produces disadvantageous side effects for the third individual person present without negatively affecting the transgressor's interest. In Experiment 2, participants were faced with a social dilemma in which they could act to benefit themselves, the victim, or a third person for whom they were induced to feel empathic concern. Again, the results show that guilt generates advantages for the victim but, in this case, at the expense of the transgressor and not at the expense of the third person, for whom they were induced to feel empathic concern. Therefore, guilt and empathy seem to limit the transgressor's interest. The theoretical implications are discussed.

Can We Do Better Next Time? Italians' Response to the COVID-19 Emergency through a Heuristics and Biases Lens.

During the outbreak of COVID-19 in Italy, people often failed to adopt behaviors that could have stopped, or at least slowed down, the spread of this deadly disease. We offer cognitive explanations for these decisions, based on some of the most common heuristics and biases that are known to influence human judgment and decision-making, especially under conditions of high uncertainty. Our analysis concludes with the following recommendations: policymakers can and should take advantage of this established science, in order to communicate more effectively and increase the likelihood that people choose responsible actions in a public health crisis.

Electroencephalographic Abnormalities in Autism Spectrum Disorder: Characteristics and Therapeutic Implications.

A large body of literature reports the higher prevalence of epilepsy in subjects with Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD) compared to the general population. Similarly, several studies report an increased rate of Subclinical Electroencephalographic Abnormalities (SEAs) in seizure-free patients with ASD rather than healthy controls, although with varying percentages. SEAs include both several epileptiform discharges and different non-epileptiform electroencephalographic abnormalities. They are more frequently associated with lower intellectual functioning, more serious dysfunctional behaviors, and they are often sign of severer forms of autism. However, SEAs clinical implications remain controversial, and they could represent an epiphenomenon of the neurochemical alterations of autism etiology. This paper provides an overview of the major research findings with two main purposes: to better delineate the state-of-the-art about EEG abnormalities in ASD and to find evidence for or against appropriateness of SEAs pharmacological treatment in ASD.

The Neurochemistry of Autism.

Autism spectrum disorder (ASD) refers to complex neurobehavioral and neurodevelopmental conditions characterized by impaired social interaction and communication, restricted and repetitive patterns of behavior or interests, and altered sensory processing. Environmental, immunological, genetic, and epigenetic factors are implicated in the pathophysiology of autism and provoke the occurrence of neuroanatomical and neurochemical events relatively early in the development of the central nervous system. Many neurochemical pathways are involved in determining ASD; however, how these complex networks interact and cause the onset of the core symptoms of autism remains unclear. Further studies on neurochemical alterations in autism are necessary to clarify the early neurodevelopmental variations behind the enormous heterogeneity of autism spectrum disorder, and therefore lead to new approaches for the treatment and prevention of autism. In this review, we aim to delineate the state-of-the-art main research findings about the neurochemical alterations in autism etiology, and focuses on gamma aminobutyric acid (GABA) and glutamate, serotonin, dopamine, N-acetyl aspartate, oxytocin and arginine-vasopressin, melatonin, vitamin D, orexin, endogenous opioids, and acetylcholine. We also aim to suggest a possible related therapeutic approach that could improve the quality of ASD interventions. Over one hundred references were collected through electronic database searching in Medline and EMBASE (Ovid), Scopus (Elsevier), ERIC (Proquest), PubMed, and the Web of Science (ISI).

Neuropeptides' Hypothalamic Regulation of Sleep Control in Children Affected by Functional Non-Retentive Fecal Incontinence.

Functional non-retentive fecal incontinence (FNRFI) is a common problem in pediatric age. FNRFI is defined as unintended loss of stool in a 4-year-old or older child after organic causes have been excluded. FNRFI tends to affects up to 3% of children older than 4 years, with males being affected more frequently than females. Clinically, children affected by FNRFI have normal intestinal movements and stool consistency. Literature data show that children with fecal incontinence have increased levels of separation anxiety, specific phobias, general anxiety, attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), and oppositional defiant disorder. In terms of possible relationship between incontinence and sleep, disorders of sleep organization have been observed in the pathogenesis of enuresis so generating the hypothesis that the orexinergic system may have a crucial role not only for the sleep organization per se but also for the sphincterial control in general. This study aimed to focus on specific neurophysiological aspects to investigate on the possible relationship between sleep organizational abnormalities and FNRFI. Specifically, we aimed to measure orexin serum levels in children with FNRFI and assess their polysomnographic sleep macrostructure patterns. Two study groups were considered: FNFRI (n = 45) and typically developed (TD) (n = 45) group. In both groups, sleep patterns and respiratory events were assessed by polysomnographic recordings (PSG) during a period of two nights at least, and plasma levels of Orexin-A were measured in each participant. The findings of this initial investigation seem to support a major role of Orexin-A in sleep organization alterations in children with FNFRI. Also, our data suggest that sleep habits evaluation should be considered as screening and complementary tool for the diagnosis of fecal incontinence in children.

Noli Me Tangere: Social Touch, Tactile Defensiveness, and Communication in Neurodevelopmental Disorders.

Tactile defensiveness is a common feature in neurodevelopmental disorders (NDDs). Since the first studies, tactile defensiveness has been described as the result of an abnormal response to sensory stimulation. Moreover, it has been studied how the tactile system is closely linked to socio-communicative development and how the interoceptive sensory system supports both a discriminating touch and an affective touch. Therefore, several neurophysiological studies have been conducted to investigate the neurobiological basis of the development and functioning of the tactile system for a better understanding of the tactile defensiveness behavior and the social touch of NDDs. Given the lack of recent literature on tactile defensiveness, the current study provides a brief overview of the original contributions on this research topic in children with NDDs focusing attention on how this behavior has been considered over the years in the clinical setting.

Autism spectrum disorders in children affected by Duchenne muscular dystrophy.

BACKGROUND: Duchenne muscular dystrophy (DMD) is the most frequent and severe form of the dystrophinopathies. The literature shows that about 30-40% of DMD subjects have intellectual disability. In males with Duchenne muscular dystrophy, neuropsychiatric disorders have also been observed: attention deficit disorder and hyperactivity, autism spectrum disorders, and obsessive-compulsive disorder. Duchenne muscular dystrophy is not just a muscle disorder, but also a disease that affects the brain. The aim of the present study was to describe a case series of children with Duchenne muscular dystrophy that have also the presence of autism spectrum disorders (ASDs). They have been assessed by means of standardized autism scales and the most appropriate psycho-educational treatment is herein discussed. METHODS: In order to evaluate and identify the presence and intensity of autistic symptoms have been used the Childhood Autism Rating Scale and Autism Diagnostic Observation Schedule tools. Moreover, in order to assess the intelligence of subjects and their lower limb function, Wisch-R intelligence scale and Vignos function scale were used, respectively. RESULTS: Atypical behaviors included a preference for being alone, and selective interest in privileged objects used in a stereotyped manner, motor fretting, and attention instability were present in all children. By the administration of these scales was confirmed the presence of an autism spectrum disorders in all subjects. CONCLUSIONS: It is important for clinical practice to consider this association increased.

Sympathetic, Metabolic Adaptations, and Oxidative Stress in Autism Spectrum Disorders: How Far From Physiology?

Autism spectrum disorders (ASD) is a complex and multifaceted neurobehavioral syndrome with no specific cause still identified, despite the worldwide increasing (prevalence for 1,000 children from 6.7 to 14.6, between 2000 and 2012). Many biological and instrumental markers have been suggested as potential predictive factors for the precocious diagnosis during infancy and/or pediatric age. Many studies reported structural and functional abnormalities in the autonomic system in subjects with ASD. Sleep problems in ASD are a prominent feature, having an impact on the social interaction of the patient. Considering the role of orexins (A and B) in wake-sleep circadian rhythm, we could speculate that ASD subjects may present a dysregulation in orexinergic neurotransmission. Conversely, oxidative stress is implicated in the pathophysiology of many neurological disorders. Nonetheless, little is known about the linkage between oxidative stress and the occurrence or the progress of autism and autonomic functioning; some markers, such as heart rate (HR), heart rate variability (HRV), body temperature, and galvanic skin response (GSR), may be altered in the patient with this so complex disorder. In the present paper, we analyzed an autism case report, focusing on the rule of the sympathetic activity with the aim to suggest that it may be considered an important tool in ASD evaluation. The results of this case confirm our hypothesis even if further studies needed.

Non-Rapid Eye Movement Sleep Parasomnias and Migraine: A Role of Orexinergic Projections.

INTRODUCTION: Sleep and migraine share a common pathophysiological substrate, although the underlying mechanisms are unknown. The serotonergic and orexinergic systems are both involved in the regulation of sleep/wake cycle, and numerous studies show that both are involved in the migraine etiopathogenesis. These two systems are anatomically and functionally interconnected. Our hypothesis is that in migraine a dysfunction of orexinergic projections on the median raphe (MR) nuclei, interfering with serotonergic regulation, may cause Non-Rapid Eye Movement parasomnias, such as somnambulism. HYPOTHESIS/THEORY: Acting on the serotonergic neurons of the raphe nuclei, the dysfunction of orexinergic neurons would lead to a higher release of serotonin. The activation of serotonergic receptors located on the walls of large cerebral vessels would lead to abnormal vasodilatation and consequently increase transmural pressure. This process could activate the trigeminal nerve terminals that innervate vascular walls. As a consequence, there is activation of sensory nerve endings at the level of hard vessels in the meninges, with release of pro-inflammatory peptides (e.g., substance P and CGRP). Within this hypothetical frame, the released serotonin could also interact with trigeminovascular afferents to activate and/or facilitate the release of the neuropeptide at the level of the trigeminal ganglion. The dysregulation of the physiological negative feedback of serotonin on the orexinergic neurons, in turn, would contribute to an alteration of the whole system, altering the sleep-wake cycle. CONCLUSION: Serotonergic neurons of the MR nuclei receive an excitatory input from hypothalamic orexin/hypocretin neurons and reciprocally inhibit orexin/hypocretin neurons through the serotonin 1A receptor (or 5-HT1A receptor). Considering this complex system, if there is an alteration it may facilitate the pathophysiological mechanisms involved in the migraine, while it may produce at the same time an alteration of the sleep-wake rhythm, causing sleep disorders such as sleepwalking. Understanding the complex mechanisms underlying migraine and sleep disorders and how these mechanisms can interact with each other, it would be crucial to pave the way for new therapeutic strategies.

Visual-spatial training efficacy in children affected by migraine without aura: a multicenter study.

Routinely in the clinical practice, children affected by migraine without aura (MwA) tend to exhibit severe and persistent difficulties within cognitive processes such as attention, memory, and visual-motor integration (VMI) skills. The aim of this study was to assess the visual-spatial and visual-motor abilities among a sample of children with MwA and the effects of a specific computerized training. The study population was composed of 84 patients affected by MwA (39 girls and 45 boys; mean age: 8.91±2.46 years), and they were randomly divided into two groups (group A and group B) comparable for age (P=0.581), gender (P=0.826), socioeconomic status (SES), migraine frequency (P=0.415), and intensity (P=0.323). At baseline (T0), the two groups were comparable for movement assessment battery for children (M-ABC) and VMI performances. After 6 months of treatment (T1), group A showed lower scores in the dexterity item of M-ABC test (P<0.001) and higher scores in M-ABC global performance centile (P<0.001) and total (P<0.001), visual (P=0.017), and motor (P<0.001) tasks of VMI test than group B. Moreover, at T1, group A showed higher scores in total (P<0.001) and motor (P<0.001) tasks of VMI test and in M-ABC global performance centile (P<0.001) and lower scores in the dexterity item of M-ABC test (P<0.001) than at T0. Group B showed, at T1, performances comparable to T0 for all evaluations. As reported by recent studies about alteration MwA among children in motor abilities, our study confirmed these difficulties and the efficacy of a specific software training, suggesting a new rehabilitative proposal in childhood.

Maternal Stress and Coping Strategies in Developmental Dyslexia: An Italian Multicenter Study.

BACKGROUND: Studies about the impact of developmental dyslexia (DD) on parenting are scarce. Our investigation aimed to assess maternal stress levels and mothers' copying styles in a population of dyslexic children. METHODS: A total of 874 children (500 boys, 374 girls; mean age 8.32 ± 2.33 years) affected by DD was included in the study. A total of 1,421 typically developing children (789 boys, 632 girls; mean age 8.25 ± 3.19 years) were recruited from local schools of participating Italian Regions (Abruzzo, Calabria, Campania, Puglia, Umbria, Sicily) and used as control-children group. All mothers (of both DD and typically developing children) filled out an evaluation for parental stress (Parenting Stress Index-Short Form) and coping strategies [Coping Inventory for Stressful Situations (CISS)]. RESULTS: No statistical differences for mean age (p = 0.456) and gender (p = 0.577) were found between DD and control children. Mothers of children affected by DD showed an higher rate of all parental stress indexes (Parental Distress domain p < 0.001, Difficult Child p < 0.001, Parent-Child Dysfunctional Interaction p < 0.001, and Total Stress subscale score p < 0.001) than controls mothers. According to the CISS evaluation, mothers of DD children reported a significantly higher rate of emotion-oriented (p < 0.001) and avoidance-oriented (p < 0.001) coping styles than mothers of typical developing children. On the other hand, a lower representation of task-oriented coping style was found in mothers of DD children (p < 0.001) in comparison to mothers of control-children. CONCLUSION: Our study shows the clinical relevance of the burden carried by the mothers of children affected by DD and suggests the importance to assess parents, particularly mothers, to improve family compliance and clinical management of this disorder.

The Rorschach Test Evaluation in Chronic Childhood Migraine: A Preliminary Multicenter Case-Control Study.

OBJECT: About 1.2-3.2% of children at 7 years of age with increasing age up to 4-19% in adolescents are suffering from migraine without aura (MwA). The aim of the present study is investigating the personality style associated with children and adolescents affected by MwA, administrating the Rorschach test, and comparing with typical developing healthy controls (TD). METHODS: 137 patients (74 males), aged 7.3-17.4 years (mean age 11.4, SD 3.02 years), affected by MwA according to the IHs-3 criteria. The Rorschach variables were treated as numerical variables and statistically tested with t-Student's analysis. RESULTS: No statistical differences were found between the MwA and TD for age (p = 0.55), and gender (p = 0.804). From the comparison between the two samples, MwA group shows lower W responses (p < 0.001), good quality W responses (p < 0.001), high frequency of detailed responses (p < 0.001), the presence of even minor form of good quality responses (p < 0.001), increased presence of animals answers (A%) (p < 0.001), more frequent trivial answers (Ban%) (p < 0.001). DISCUSSION: Rorschach interpretation pinpointed many interesting and, perhaps, peculiar aspects in our MwA population such as a trend predisposition for: analytical reasoning rather than synthetic, ease/practicality rather than creativity, oppositionality rather than external adaptation to the environment that may be interpreted as effect of general maladaptivity.

The Quality of Life in Girls with Rett Syndrome.

Nowadays, quality of life is receiving an increasing attention in all scientific areas. Rett syndrome (RTT) is a rare neurological development, affecting mainly females. The congenital disease affects the central nervous system, and is one of the most common causes of severe intellectual disability. The aim of our study is to evaluate the effect of RTT on the quality of life of people who are affected. Both parents of 18 subjects, all female, diagnosed with RTT, took part in the research. Quality of life was assessed using the Italian version of the Impact of Childhood Illness Scale. This scale consists of 30 questions that investigate the effect of illness on children, parents and families. For each question, the parent was asked to rate two variables: frequency and importance. Another questionnaire was administered to obtain medical history, diagnostic and therapeutic data of the persons with RTT. Our data show that RTT has a considerable impact on both the child's development and the entire family. Parents' answers demonstrated that their child's illness had consequences for the child and how the family coped with it. For this reason, attention should be directed at psychological and social aspects, as well as attitudes, manners, reactions and effects such disturbances can have on the entire family.

Behavioral Phenotype and Autism Spectrum Disorders in Cornelia de Lange Syndrome.

Cornelia de Lange syndrome (CdLS) is a congenital disorder characterized by distinctive facial features, growth retardation, limb abnormalities, intellectual disability, and behavioral problems. Cornelia de Lange syndrome is associated with abnormalities on chromosomes 5, 10 and X. Heterozygous point mutations in three genes (NIPBL, SMC3 and SMC1A), are responsible for approximately 50-60% of CdLS cases. CdLS is characterized by autistic features, notably excessive repetitive behaviors and expressive language deficits. The prevalence of autism spectrum disorder (ASD) symptomatology is comparatively high in CdLS. However, the profile and developmental trajectories of these ASD characteristics are potentially different to those observed in individuals with idiopathic ASD. A significantly higher prevalence of self-injury are evident in CdLS. Self-injury was associated with repetitive and impulsive behavior. This study describes the behavioral phenotype of four children with Cornelia de Lange syndrome and ASDs and rehabilitative intervention that must be implemented.

Pediatric neurofibromatosis 1 and parental stress: a multicenter study.

BACKGROUND: Neurofibromatosis 1 (NF1) is a complex and multifaceted neurocutaneous syndrome with many and varied comorbidities. The literature about the prevalence and degree of maternal stress and the impact of NF1 in the parent-child interaction is still scant. The aim of this study was to evaluate the prevalence of maternal stress in a large pediatric sample of individuals affected by NF1. METHODS: Thirty-seven children (19 boys, 18 girls) of mean age 7.86±2.94 (range 5-11) years affected by typical NF1 and a control group comprising 405 typically developing children (207 boys, 198 girls; mean age 8.54±2.47 years) were included in this study. To assess parental stress, the mothers of all individuals (NF1 and comparisons) filled out the Parenting Stress Index-Short Form test. RESULTS: The two study groups were comparable for age (P=0.116), gender (P=0.886), and body mass index adjusted for age (P=0.305). Mothers of children affected by NF1 reported higher mean Parenting Stress Index-Short Form scores on the Parental Distress domain (P<0.001), Difficult Child domain (P<0.001), and Total Stress domain than the mothers of typically developing children (controls) (P<0.001). No significant differences between the two groups were found for the Parent-Child Dysfunctional Interaction domain (P=0.566) or Defensive Responding domain scores (P=0.160). CONCLUSION: NF1 is considered a multisystemic and complex disease, with many still unrecognized features in pediatric patients and in their families. In this light, our findings about the higher levels of maternal stress highlight the importance of considering the environmental aspects of NF1 management in developmental age.

Attachment styles in children affected by migraine without aura.

BACKGROUND: In recent years, great attention has been given to the presence of psychological problems and psychiatric comorbidity that are also present in children affected by primary headaches. The relationship between pain and attachment has been identified, and it may be that pain perception may change in relation with specific attachment styles. The aim of the present study was to assess the prevalent attachment style and verify its putative relationship and correlation with the main characteristics of migraine attacks, in school-aged children affected by migraine without aura (MoA). MATERIALS AND METHODS: The study population consisted of 219 children (103 males, 116 females) aged between 6 and 11 years (mean 8.96 ± 2.14 years), consecutively referred for MoA compared with 381 healthy controls (174 males, 207 females; mean age 9.01 ± 1.75 years) randomly selected from schools. All the children were classified according to the attachment typologies of the Italian modified version of the Separation Anxiety Test; monthly headache frequency and mean headache duration were assessed from daily headache diaries kept by all the children. Headache intensity was assessed on a visual analog scale. The chi-square test and t-test, where appropriate, were applied, and the Spearman rank correlation test was applied to explore the relationship between the types of attachment style and clinical aspects of MoA. RESULTS: The MoA group showed a significantly higher prevalence of type A (avoidant) attachment (P<0.001) and a significantly lower prevalence of type B (secure) attachment (P<0.001) compared with the control group. Moreover, the Spearman rank correlation analysis showed a significant relationship between MoA characteristics and the attachment style of MoA children. CONCLUSION: The main findings of the present study were the higher prevalence among MoA children of the avoidant attachment style (type A) and the significantly lower prevalence of the secure style attachment (type B) compared with the normal controls, suggesting that the study of psychiatric comorbidity in pediatric headache may be enriched by this new aspect of analysis.

Psychomotor approach in children affected by nonretentive fecal soiling (FNRFS): a new rehabilitative purpose.

BACKGROUND: According to the Rome III criteria, encopresis without constipation was defined as nonretentive fecal soiling (FNRFS) with not yet well understood etiology. Treatment approaches reported in the literature with varying results include biofeedback, hypnosis, reflexology, and Internet-based educational programs. In developmental age, another behavioral treatment could be identified in the psychomotor approach, which is called psychomotricity in the European countries, or is also known as play therapy. The aim of the present study was to verify the safety and efficacy of play therapy plus toilet training in a small sample of prepubertal children affected by FNRFS. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Twenty-six patients (group 1; 16 males, mean age of 5.92 ± 0.84 years) underwent a psychomotor approach therapy program in association with toilet training for 6 months, and the other 26 subjects (group 2; 17 males, mean age of 5.76 ± 0.69) underwent the sole toilet training program for 6 months. During the observational time period (T0) and after 6 months (T1) of both treatments, the patients were evaluated for FNRFS frequency and for the behavioral assessment. RESULTS: At T0, the FNRFS mean frequency per month for group 1 was 20.115 episodes/month (standard deviation [SD] ± 3.024) and for group 2 was 20.423 (SD ± 1.879) (P = 0.661). At T1 the mean frequency per month was 6.461 (SD ± 1.333) episodes/month and 12.038 (SD ± 1.341), respectively (P < 0.001). Moreover, the delta percent average of the frequency between T0 and T1 was 67.121 ± 8.527 for group 1 and 40.518 ± 9.259 for group 2 (P < 0.001). At T1, a significant improvement in scores on the behavioral scale was identified. CONCLUSION: Our preliminary results show the importance of a multidisciplinary approach, and suggest the positive effect of an additional psychomotor approach, as this holds a new and interesting rehabilitative purpose for children in a toilet training program, even if further research is necessary.

Maternal personality profile of children affected by migraine.

BACKGROUND: Empirical evidence of the important role of the family in primary pediatric headache has grown significantly in the last few years, although the interconnections between the dysfunctional process and the family interaction are still unclear. Even though the role of parenting in childhood migraine is well known, no studies about the personality of parents of migraine children have been conducted. The aim of the present study was to assess, using an objective measure, the personality profile of mothers of children affected by migraine without aura (MoA). MATERIALS AND METHODS: A total of 269 mothers of MoA children (153 male, 116 female, aged between 6 and 12 years; mean 8.93 ± 3.57 years) were compared with the findings obtained from a sample of mothers of 587 healthy children (316 male, 271 female, mean age 8.74 ± 3.57 years) randomly selected from schools in the Campania, Umbria, Calabria, and Sicily regions. Each mother filled out the Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory - second edition (MMPI-2), widely used to diagnose personality and psychological disorders. The t-test was used to compare age and MMPI-2 clinical basic and content scales between mothers of MoA and typical developing children, and Pearson's correlation test was used to evaluate the relation between MMPI-2 scores of mothers of MoA children and frequency, intensity, and duration of migraine attacks of their children. RESULTS: Mothers of MoA children showed significantly higher scores in the paranoia and social introversion clinical basic subscales, and in the anxiety, obsessiveness, depression, health concerns, bizarre mentation, cynicism, type A, low self-esteem, work interference, and negative treatment indicator clinical content subscales (P < 0.001 for all variables). Moreover, Pearson's correlation analysis showed a significant relationship between MoA frequency of children and anxiety (r = 0.4903, P = 0.024) and low self-esteem (r = 0.5130, P = 0.017), while the MoA duration of children was related with hypochondriasis (r = 0.6155, P = 0.003), hysteria (r = 0.6235, P = 0.003), paranoia (r = 0.5102, P = 0.018), psychasthenia (r = 0.4806, P = 0.027), schizophrenia (r = 0.4350, P = 0.049), anxiety (r = 0.4332, P = 0.050), and health concerns (r = 0.7039, P < 0.001) MMPI-2 scores of their mothers. CONCLUSION: This could be considered a preliminary study that indicates the potential value of maternal personality assessment for better comprehension and clinical management of children affected by migraine, though further studies on the other primary headaches are necessary.