Epidemiology of Salmonella on the Paws and in the Faeces of Free-Ranging Raccoons (Procyon Lotor) in Southern Ontario, Canada.

Raccoons are common in urban and rural environments and can carry a wide range of bacteria, including Salmonella, that can negatively affect human and livestock health. Although previous studies have reported that raccoons shed a variety of Salmonella serovars in their faeces, it is unknown whether Salmonella is carried on raccoon paws. Our objective was to compare the prevalence of Salmonella on the paws and in the faeces of raccoons in south-western Ontario. Raccoons were sampled in a repeat cross-sectional study on five swine farms and five conservation areas from May to October 2012. A total of 416 paired faecal and paw samples were collected from 285 individual raccoons. Salmonella was detected in 18% (75/416; 95% CI, 14-22%) and 27% (111/416; 95% CI, 22-31%) of paw and faecal samples, respectively. Salmonella was detected only on paws in 8% (35/416; 95% CI, 5.9-11.5%), only in faeces in 17% (71/416; 95% CI, 13.6-21.0%) and on both paws and in faeces in 10% (40/416; 95% CI, 7.0-12.9%) of raccoon captures. Multilevel logistic regression models were used to examine associations between the presence of Salmonella and age (adult, juvenile), sex (male, female), location type (swine farm, conservation area), sample type (faeces, paw) and season (May-July and August-October). Random intercepts were included to account for clustering by individual animal and location. Significant differences, that varied by sample type and season, were noted in the prevalence of Salmonella carriage between sexes. Raccoons can carry Salmonella serovars known to infect humans and livestock on their paws and/or in their faeces and therefore have the potential to mechanically and biologically disseminate Salmonella among livestock facilities and human recreational areas.

Integrated surveillance and potential sources of Salmonella enteritidis in human cases in Canada from 2003 to 2009.

Salmonella enteritidis has emerged as the most prevalent cause of human salmonellosis in Canada. Recent trends of S. enteritidis subtypes and their potential sources were described by integrating Salmonella data from several Canadian surveillance and monitoring programmes. A threefold increase in S. enteritidis cases from 2003 to 2009 was identified to be primarily associated with phage types 13, 8 and 13a. Other common phage types (4, 1, 6a) showed winter seasonality and were more likely to be associated with cases linked to international travel. Conversely, phage types 13, 8 and 13a had summer seasonal peaks and were associated with cases of domestically acquired infections. During agri-food surveillance, S. enteritidis was detected in various commodities, most frequently in chicken (with PT13, PT8 and PT13a predominating). Antimicrobial resistance was low in human and non-human isolates. Continued integrated surveillance and collaborative prevention and control efforts are required to mitigate future illness.

Integration of participatory approaches into surveillance systems.

Animal health surveillance is essential for protecting public health, enhancing access to international markets for animals and their products, and improving animal health, production and welfare. It is of vital importance for protecting and improving the livelihoods of diverse groups of livestock keepers and stakeholders in livestock value chains. Surveillance systems consist of sets of complementary components which generate information to inform risk assessment, decision-making and policy formulation for both national programmes and international trade. Participatory approaches have the potential to add value to surveillance systems by enhancing their performance, especially their sensitivity and timeliness, and encouraging the inclusion of marginalised groups. This paper summarises key considerations in the assessment and design of animal health surveillance and discusses how participatory approaches can be integrated into comprehensive surveillance systems, leading to a more effective overall outcome for both domestic and international purposes.

Survey of influenza A viruses circulating in wild birds in Canada 2005 to 2007.

A multi-agency, Canada-wide survey of influenza A viruses circulating in wild birds, coordinated by the Canadian Cooperative Wildlife Health Centre, was begun in the summer of 2005. Cloacal swab specimens collected from young-of-year ducks were screened for the presence of influenza A nucleic acids by quantitative, real-time reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction (RRT-PCR). Specimens that produced positive results underwent further testing for H5 and H7 gene sequences and virus isolation. In addition to live bird sampling, dead bird surveillance based on RRT-PCR was also carried out in 2006 and 2007. The prevalence of influenza A viruses varied depending on species, region of the country, and the year of sampling, but generally ranged from 20% to 50%. All HA subtypes, with the exception of H14 and H15, and all NA subtypes were identified. The three most common HA subtypes were H3, H4, and H5, while N2, N6, and N8 were the three most common NA subtypes. H4N6, H3N2, and H3N8 were the three most common HA-NA combinations. The prevalence of H5 and H7 subtype viruses appears to have a cyclical nature.

A new era in home care.

Profound changes in policy and reimbursement are ushering in a new era in home care. The transition from fee-for-service reimbursement to prospective payment/managed care and the mandate for outcomes assessment provide opportunities to expand innovative home care models. The authors describe 3 such models: community-based long-term care (exemplified by PACE, Program of All-inclusive Care for the Elderly), home-based primary care (exemplified by the Veterans Administration Home-Based Primary Care program), and disease management programs (exemplified by Group Health Cooperative of Puget Sound). Professional qualifications for the new era, including certification and graduate education for advanced practice nursing, also are described.