Discriminant analysis as a tool to classify farm hay in dairy farms.

Hay is one of the primary constituents of ruminant feed, and rapid classification systems of nutritional value are essential. A reliable approach to evaluating hay quality is a combination of visual combined inspection by NIRS analysis. The analysis was carried out on 1,639 samples of hay collected from 2016 to 2021 in northern Italy. Discriminant analysis (DAPC) on five hay types (FOM, forage mixtures; APG, first alfalfa cutting with prevalence of graminaceous >50%; PRA, prevailing alfalfa >50%; PUA, purity alfalfa >95%; and PEM, permanent meadows) was performed by ex-ante visual inspection categorization and NIRS analysis. This study aimed to provide a complementary method to differentiate hay types and classify unknown samples. Two scenarios were used: i) all data were used for model training, and the discriminant functions were extracted based on all samples; ii) the assignment of each group was assessed without samples belonging to the training set group. DAPC model resulted in an overall assignment success rate of 66%; precisely, the success was 84, 79, 69, 37, and 27% for PUA, FOM, PRA, APG, and PEM, respectively. In the second scenario, three groups showed percentages of posterior assignment probability higher than 70% to only one group: PUA with PRA (~ 99%), PRA with PUA (~71%), and PEM with FOM (~75%). Discriminant analysis can be successfully used to differentiate hay types and could also be used to assess factors related to hay quality in addition to NIRS analysis.

Temperature-humidity index monitoring during two summer seasons in dairy cow sheds in Mugello (Tuscany).

Many studies have reported that the impact of high temperatures affects physiology, welfare, health, and productivity of farm animals, and among these, the dairy cattle farming is one of the livestock sectors that suffers the greatest effects. The temperature-humidity index (THI) represents the state of the art in the evaluation of heat stress conditions in dairy cattle but often its measurement is not carried out in sheds. For this reason, the aim of this study was the monitoring of the THI in three dairy cattle farms in Mugello (Tuscany) to understand its influence on dairy cows. THI values were calculated using meteorological data from direct observation in sheds and outdoor environments. Data relating to the animal's behavior were collected using radio collars. The Pearson test and Mann-Kendall test were used for statistical analysis. The results highlighted a significant (P < 0.001) upward trend in THImax during the last 30 years both in Low Mugello (+ 1.1 every 10 years) and in High Mugello (+ 0.9 every 10 years). In Low Mugello sheds, during the period 2020-2022, more than 70% of daytime hours during the summer period were characterized by heat risk conditions (THI > 72) for livestock. On average the animals showed a significant (P < 0.001) decrease in time spent to feeding and rumination, both during the day and the night, with a significant (P < 0.001) increase in inactivity. This study fits into the growing demand for knowledge of the micro-climatic conditions within farms in order to support resilience actions for protecting both animal welfare and farm productivity from the effects of climate change. This could also be carried out thanks to estimation models which, based on the meteorological conditions forecast, could implement the thermal stress indicator (THI) directly from the high-resolution meteorological model, allowing to get a prediction of the farm's potential productivity loss based on the expected THI.

Prediction of fatty acid composition in intact and minced fat of European autochthonous pigs breeds by near infrared spectroscopy.

The fatty acids profile has been playing a decisive role in recent years, thanks to technological, sensory and health demands from producers and consumers. The application of NIRS technique on fat tissues, could lead to more efficient, practical, and economical in the quality control. The study aim was to assess the accuracy of Fourier Transformed Near Infrared Spectroscopy technique to determine fatty acids composition in fat of 12 European local pig breeds. A total of 439 spectra of backfat were collected both in intact and minced tissue and then were analyzed using gas chromatographic analysis. Predictive equations were developed using the 80% of samples for the calibration, followed by full cross validation, and the remaining 20% for the external validation test. NIRS analysis of minced samples allowed a better response for fatty acid families, n6 PUFA, it is promising both for n3 PUFA quantification and for the screening (high, low value) of the major fatty acids. Intact fat prediction, although with a lower predictive ability, seems suitable for PUFA and n6 PUFA while for other families allows only a discrimination between high and low values.

Soybean Replacement by Alternative Protein Sources in Pig Nutrition and Its Effect on Meat Quality.

Soybean is one of the most expensive and limiting feed ingredients in diet formulations; however, in pig farming, it represents the main source of protein. The production and supply of soybean are critical steps due to their environmental impact and feed/food competition for land use. Therefore, research is focusing on finding alternatives to replace soybean partially or totally. However, alternative ingredients should ensure similar growth performance, carcass traits, and meat quality characteristics compared to conventional soybean-based diets. The objective of this review was to evaluate the impact of different alternative protein sources to soybean in pig nutrition and their effects on growth performance, carcass, and meat quality traits. The review process was performed on Scopus®, and it considered research findings published from 2012 to the present on the Sus scrofa species. Articles without a control group fed with soybean were discarded. The main alternative protein sources identified were other legumes and distillers' dried grain with solubles (fish and animal proteins, oilseed by- and co-products). Interesting innovative protein sources included by-products from other industries (residues), microalgae and insects. Nevertheless, in dietary formulations, close attention must be paid to address the nutritional requirements, balance the supply of amino acids, avoid anti-nutritional or toxic compounds occasionally present in alternative protein sources, as well as determine the availability of protein feed in specific geographical areas.

Effects of a Ceiling Fan Ventilation System and THI on Young Limousin Bulls' Social Behaviour.

The study investigated the relationship between the temperature humidity index (THI) and the behaviour of 24 young fattening Limousin bulls reared in two farms in Tuscany, Italy. In each farm, six animals were undergone to ceiling fans (switched on at THI values up to 72), and six animals represented the control group. The trial lasted three days for two consecutive weeks in August 2020. Behavioural observations were conducted using scan sampling technique and eating, ruminating, drinking, resting and other social activities were registered every 5 min, from 9.30 am to 4.00 pm. Two different microclimatic conditions were evaluated to assess the effect of the ventilation system: normal (THI < 78) and alert (THI ≥ 78) conditions. Results showed that the ventilation system had significant effects increasing inactivity and lying down compared to control groups and decreasing eating and drinking activities. THI alert condition caused a significant decrease in eating and an increase in lying down behaviours. Ventilation system did not influence the animals' cleanliness. The ceiling fans' efficiency in changing the behaviour of young fattening bulls was demonstrated but further studies are needed to assess the ventilation system effects, especially during longer heat stress periods.

Influence of Wet Ageing on Beef Quality Traits.

Fresh samples of Longissimus thoracis of Charolais (n = 12), Romagnola (n = 15), Limousine (n = 77), and crossbreed (n = 62) animals were evaluated with different storage periods (0, 4, 9, and 14 days). Proximate analysis (i.e., pH, humidity, color, free water content, and physical parameters) was performed for each sample. The data obtained were evaluated with a mixed model, setting 5 fixed effects (breed, storage time, animals age, EUROP conformation, number of animal transports) and the animal as random. The results demonstrated that meat quality was affected mainly by the wet ageing period and that the visual and tactile parameters were also found to be susceptible to the storage time. The conservation entailed a decrease in meat humidity and an increase in L* and b* traits; it also led to a decrease in the hardness of the sample, in turn affecting the other texture profile analysis parameters considered. Fixed effects affected in different ways the traits analyzed i.e., pH and humidity changed with breed, as well as with EUROP classification, animals' age for some TPA parameters, and the number of animal transports for both visual and tactile parameters. Wet ageing influenced the meat quality, often improving it, confirming how important further research would be to identify precise storage times in relation to the parameters studied.

Cardoon Meal as Alternative Protein Source to Soybean Meal for Limousine Bulls Fattening Period: Effects on Growth Performances and Meat Quality Traits.

Soybean meal is the most important protein source in beef cattle feeding. The research of alternative protein sources to replace soy use, avoiding negative effects on in vivo performance and on the product's quality, is an important issue. In this context, cardoon represents a non-OGM resilient crop that can be cultivated in marginal lands for extracting its seed oil (utilized for biodiesel and biodegradable bioplastic production) and whose and the residual meal from its seed oil (utilized for biodiesel and biodegradable bioplastic production) could be a suitable by-product for animal feeding, due to its fairly high protein content. The aim of this study was to evaluate the feasibility of using cardoon meal as an innovative protein source during the Limousine bulls' fattening period. Thirty-two bulls were divided into two groups and fed with a diet containing soybean meal (SG) or partially replacing soybean meal with cardoon meal as a protein source (CG), respectively. The feeding trial lasted about 11 months. Growth performances and meat physical-chemical traits were evaluated. No statistical differences in feed efficiency, average daily gain, or in the main meat quality indicators, as well as in fatty acid profiles were found among the groups. Therefore, cardoon meal could be considered as an alternative to soybean meal in fattening Limousine bulls in order to enhance the sustainability of the farming system.

Can Grassland Chemical Quality Be Quantified Using Transform Near-Infrared Spectroscopy?

Near-infrared spectroscopy (NIRS) and closed spectroscopy methods have been applied to analyse the quality of forage and animal feed. However, grasslands are linked to variability factors (e.g., site, year, occurring species, etc.) which restrict the prediction capacity of the NIRS. The aim of this study is to test the Fourier transform NIRS application in order to determine the chemical characteristics of fresh, undried and unground samples of grassland located in north-central Apennine. The results indicated the success of FT-NIRS models for dry matter (DM), crude protein (CP), acid detergent fibre (ADF), neutral detergent fibre (NDF) and acid detergent lignin (ADL) on fresh grassland samples (R2 > 0.90, in validation). The model can be used to quantitatively determine CP and ADF (residual prediction deviation-RPD > 3 and range error ratio- RER > 10), followed by DM and NDF that maintain a RER > 10, and are sufficient for screening for the lignin fraction (RPD = 2.4 and RER = 8.8). On the contrary, models for both lipid and ash seem not to be usable at a practical level. The success of FT-NIRS quantification for the main chemical parameters is promising from the practical point of view considering both the absence of samples preparation and the importance of these parameters for diet formulation.

Effect of Replacement of Synthetic vs. Natural Curing Agents on Quality Characteristics of Cinta Senese Frankfurter-Type Sausage.

Frankfurter-type sausages (called sausages) were manufactured using Cinta Senese meat. Two different formulations were considered: (i) nitrite and nitrate as curing agents (NIT), (ii) natural mixture (NAT) totally replacing the synthetic curing agents. Microbiological, chemical, and physical characteristics during three different storage times (7, 30, 60 days) were investigated, while sensorial traits were evaluated at the end of the period. The main foodborne pathogens (Escherichia coli, Listeria monocytogenes, coagulase positive Staphylococcus spp., Salmonella spp., total bacterium at 30 °C) were absent in both sausage groups. Both types of sausage had a high content of fat probably due to the high intramuscular fat of the local breed. The fatty acid composition of NAT sausages would seem slightly less efficient in the lipid oxidation control. Regarding color parameters, NIT sausages showed greater lightness and redness, while NAT ones were more yellow, thanks to the effect of nitrate on color. All texture parameters resulted higher in NIT, except for the springiness. Storage time mainly affected total microbial count, pH, and color. The addition of natural extract changed the perception of some sensorial properties above all in terms of taste and odor. Natural extract represented an alternative to synthetic additives in Cinta Senese sausages even if some attributes could be improved.