The "Forgotten" Subtypes of Breast Carcinoma: A Systematic Review of Selected Histological Variants Not Included or Not Recognized as Distinct Entities in the Current World Health Organization Classification of Breast Tumors.

Breast carcinoma is the most common cancer in women. Nineteen different subtypes of breast carcinomas are recognized in the current WHO classification of breast tumors. Except for these subtypes, there are a number of carcinomas with special morphologic and immunohistochemical features that are not included in the 5th WHO classification, while others are considered special morphologic patterns of invasive breast carcinoma of no special type. In this manuscript, we systematically review the literature on four different subtypes of invasive breast carcinoma, namely lymphoepithelioma-like breast carcinoma, breast carcinoma with osteoclast-like giant cells, signet-ring breast carcinoma, and metaplastic breast carcinoma with melanocytic differentiation. We describe their clinicopathological characteristics, focusing on the differential diagnosis, treatment, and prognosis.

Pre-Existing Immunity Predicts Response to First-Line Immunotherapy in Non-Small Cell Lung Cancer Patients.

T-cell-mediated anti-tumoral responses may have significant clinical relevance as a biomarker for response to immunotherapy. The value of peripheral blood pre-existing tumor antigen-specific T cells (PreI+) as a predictive immunotherapy biomarker in NSCLC patients was investigated, along with the frequency of various circulating immune cells. Fifty-two treatment-naïve, stage III/IV NSCLC patients, treated with front-line immune checkpoint inhibitors (ICI)-containing regimens were enrolled. PreI was calculated as the percentages of CD3+IFNγ+ cells after in vitro co-cultures of PBMCs with peptides against four different Tumor-Associated Antigens (TAA). Immunophenotyping of peripheral blood immune cells was performed using multicolor flow cytometry. PreI+ T cells were detected in 44% of patients. Median overall survival (OS) was significantly higher in PreI+ patients compared to PreI- patients (not reached vs. 321 days, respectively; p = 0.014). PreI+ patients had significantly higher numbers of possible exhausted CD3+CD8+PD-1+ cells and lower percentages of immunosuppressive Tregs compared to PreI- patients. Additionally, patients with PreI+ and low numbers of peripheral blood M-MDSCs had a significant survival advantage compared to the rest of the patients. Thus, combining pre-existing tumor antigen-specific immunity before initiation of ICI in NSCLC patients with selected immune-suppressive cells could identify patients who have a favorable clinical outcome when treated with ICI-containing regimens.

Helicobacter pylori Eradication Reverses DNA Damage Response Pathway but Not Senescence in Human Gastric Epithelium.

Helicobacter pylori (H. pylori) infection induces DNA Double-Strand Breaks (DSBs) and consequently activates the DNA Damage Response pathway (DDR) and senescence in gastric epithelium. We studied DDR activation and senescence before and after the eradication of the pathogen. Gastric antral and corpus biopsies of 61 patients with H. pylori infection, prior to and after eradication treatment, were analyzed by means of immunohistochemistry/immunofluorescence for DDR marker (γH2AΧ, phosporylated ataxia telangiectasia-mutated (pATM), p53-binding protein (53BP1) and p53) expression. Samples were also evaluated for Ki67 (proliferation index), cleaved caspase-3 (apoptotic index) and GL13 staining (cellular senescence). Ten H. pylori (-) dyspeptic patients served as controls. All patients were re-endoscoped in 72-1361 days (mean value 434 days), and tissue samples were processed in the same manner. The eradication of the microorganism, in human gastric mucosa, downregulates γH2AΧ expression in both the antrum and corpus (p = 0.00019 and p = 0.00081 respectively). The expression of pATM, p53 and 53BP1 is also reduced after eradication. Proliferation and apoptotic indices were reduced, albeit not significantly, after pathogen clearance. Moreover, cellular senescence is increased in H. pylori-infected mucosa and remains unaffected after eradication. Interestingly, senescence was statistically increased in areas of intestinal metaplasia (IM) compared with adjacent non-metaplastic mucosa (p < 0.001). In conclusion, H. pylori infection triggers DSBs, DDR and senescence in the gastric epithelium. Pathogen eradication reverses the DDR activation but not senescence. Increased senescent cells may favor IM persistence, thus potentially contributing to gastric carcinogenesis.

Malignant Brenner Tumor of the Ovary: A Systematic Review of the Literature.

BACKGROUND: Malignant Brenner tumors are rare ovarian tumors, accounting for less than 1% of malignant ovarian neoplasms. The aim of this manuscript is to systematically review the current literature concerning malignant Brenner tumors. METHODS: We searched three medical databases (PubMed, Scopus, and Web of Science) for relevant articles published until 15 September 2023. RESULTS: After applying inclusion and exclusion criteria, 48 manuscripts describing 115 cases were included in this study from the English literature. CONCLUSIONS: We analyzed the demographic, clinical, pathological, and oncological characteristics of 115 patients with malignant Brenner tumors. The statistical analysis showed that recurrence was marginally statistically significantly related to tumor stage and was more common in patients with ascites and in women with abnormal CA-125 levels; patients that were treated with lymphadenectomy had better disease-specific survival.

Distinct profiles of proliferating CD8+/TCF1+ T cells and CD163+/PD-L1+ macrophages predict risk of relapse differently among treatment-naïve breast cancer subtypes.

Immunophenotypic analysis of breast cancer microenvironment is gaining attraction as a clinical tool improving breast cancer patient stratification. The aim of this study is to evaluate proliferating CD8 + including CD8 + TCF1 + Τ cells along with PD-L1 expressing tissue-associated macrophages among different breast cancer subtypes. A well-characterized cohort of 791 treatment-naïve breast cancer patients was included. The analysis demonstrated a distinct expression pattern among breast cancer subtypes characterized by increased CD8 + , CD163 + and CD163 + PD-L1 + cells along with high PD-L1 status and decreased fraction of CD8 + Ki67 + T cells in triple negative (TNBC) and HER2 + compared to luminal tumors. Kaplan-Meier and Cox univariate survival analysis revealed that breast cancer patients with high CD8 + , CD8 + Ki67 + , CD8 + TCF1 + cells, PD-L1 score and CD163 + PD-L1 + cells are likely to have a prolonged relapse free survival, while patients with high CD163 + cells have a worse prognosis. A differential impact of high CD8 + , CD8 + Ki67 + , CD8 + TCF1 + T cells, CD163 + PD-L1 + macrophages and PD-L1 status on prognosis was identified among the various breast cancer subtypes since only TNBC patients experience an improved prognosis compared to patients with luminal A tumors. Conversely, high infiltration by CD163 + cells is associated with worse prognosis only in patients with luminal A but not in TNBC tumors. Multivariate Cox regression analysis in TNBC patients revealed that increased CD8 + [hazard ratio (HR) = 0.542; 95% confidence interval (CI) 0.309-0.950; p = 0.032), CD8 + TCF1 + (HR = 0.280; 95% CI 0.101-0.779; p = 0.015), CD163 + PD-L1 + (HR: 0.312; 95% CI 0.112-0.870; p = 0.026) cells along with PD-L1 status employing two different scoring methods (HR: 0.362; 95% CI 0.162-0.812; p = 0.014 and HR: 0.395; 95% CI 0.176-0.884; p = 0.024) were independently linked with a lower relapse rate. Multivariate analysis in Luminal type A patients revealed that increased CD163 + was independently associated with a higher relapse rate (HR = 2.360; 95% CI 1.077-5.170; p = 0.032). This study demonstrates that the evaluation of the functional status of CD8 + T cells in combination with the analysis of immunosuppressive elements could provide clinically relevant information in different breast cancer subtypes.

Diagnostic Challenges during Inflammation and Cancer: Current Biomarkers and Future Perspectives in Navigating through the Minefield of Reactive versus Dysplastic and Cancerous Lesions in the Digestive System.

In the setting of pronounced inflammation, changes in the epithelium may overlap with neoplasia, often rendering it impossible to establish a diagnosis with certainty in daily clinical practice. Here, we discuss the underlying molecular mechanisms driving tissue response during persistent inflammatory signaling along with the potential association with cancer in the gastrointestinal tract, pancreas, extrahepatic bile ducts, and liver. We highlight the histopathological challenges encountered in the diagnosis of chronic inflammation in routine practice and pinpoint tissue-based biomarkers that could complement morphology to differentiate reactive from dysplastic or cancerous lesions. We refer to the advantages and limitations of existing biomarkers employing immunohistochemistry and point to promising new markers, including the generation of novel antibodies targeting mutant proteins, miRNAs, and array assays. Advancements in experimental models, including mouse and 3D models, have improved our understanding of tissue response. The integration of digital pathology along with artificial intelligence may also complement routine visual inspections. Navigating through tissue responses in various chronic inflammatory contexts will help us develop novel and reliable biomarkers that will improve diagnostic decisions and ultimately patient treatment.

Human Papillomavirus 16 DNA Methylation Patterns and Investigation of Integration Status in Head and Neck Cancer Cases.

Persistent high-risk human papillomavirus (HPV) infection is a pivotal factor in the progression of cervical cancer. In recent years, an increasing interest has emerged in comprehending the influence of HPV on head and neck squamous cell carcinoma (HNSCC). Notably, it is well established that HPV-associated HNSCC show cases with distinct molecular and clinical attributes compared to HPV-negative cases. The present study delves into the epigenetic landscape of HPV16, specifically its L1 gene and untranslated region (UTR), through pyrosequencing, while the HPV16 DNA physical status was evaluated using E2/E6 ratio analysis in HPV16-positive HNSCC FFPE biopsies. Our findings reveal substantial methylation across six sites within the HPV16 L1 gene and seven sites in the UTR. Specifically, methylation percentages of two L1 CpG sites (7136, 7145) exhibit significant associations with tumor histological grade (p < 0.01), while proving concurrent methylation across multiple sites. The HPV16 DNA physical status was not correlated with the methylation of viral genome or tumor characteristics. This is the first study that examines epigenetic modifications and the HPV16 DNA physical status in Greek HNSCC patients. Our findings suggest an orchestrated epigenetic modulation among specific sites, impacting viral gene expression and intricate virus-host interactions.

Uterine collision tumor (PEComa and endometrioid carcinoma) in a tuberous sclerosis patient: a case report.

Perivascular epithelioid cell tumors are very rare mesenchymal neoplasms arising in various locations, such as the female genital tract, kidney, lung, prostate, bladder, pancreas, soft tissues, and bone. They possess a unique immunophenotype, co-expressing myogenic and melanocytic markers; molecular findings include mutations of tuberous sclerosis complex and translocations of transcription factor E3, a member of the microphthalmia transcription factor gene family. We herewith report a uterine collision tumor consisting of a perivascular epithelioid cell tumor and a moderately differentiated endometrial endometrioid carcinoma in a patient with genetically proven tuberous sclerosis; two leiomyomas were also found in contact with the tumor. Although two such cases one with a benign and another with a malignant perivascular epithelioid cell tumor have previously been reported, ours is, to our knowledge, the first reported in a tuberous sclerosis patient.

Multiple cerebral microinfarcts: an uncommon presentation of Cerebral Amyloid Angiopathy-related inflammation.

BACKGROUND: Cerebral Amyloid Angiopathy-related inflammation (CAA-ri) is a distinct but rare subset of CAA. The greater availability of high resolution Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) has currently allowed the increasing recognition and diagnosis of this entity, without the risk of a brain biopsy. However, in rare cases with typical clinical characteristics but uncommon neuroimaging findings at presentation, the brain-biopsy is required for an early and reliable diagnosis. CASE DESCRIPTION: A 71-year-old man with arterial hypertension presented due to 1-week history of headache, vomiting, disorientation and impaired consciousness. Brain MRI revealed multiple acute cortical/subcortical microinfarcts, scarce microbleeds, extensive right parietooccipital and left frontotemporal leptomeningeal enhancement. After an extensive diagnostic work-up, excluding infectious, neoplastic and autoimmune etiologies, the patient underwent brain-biopsy. Histology disclosed amyloid deposition in an arteriolar wall and the patient fulfilled diagnostic criteria for probable CAA-ri with supporting pathology. He received intravenous methylprednisolone, followed by oral tapering with steroids showing clinical and radiological improvement with complete resolution of gadolinium enhancement. Follow-up MRI revealed an increase of cerebral microbleeds and the patient fulfilled CAA-ri neuroimaging criteria. CONCLUSIONS: This case highlights the importance of continuous vigilance from clinical neurologists to detect CAA-ri diagnosis and the diagnostic value of brain-biopsy in CAA-ri patients with atypical neuroimaging presentation, such as acute microinfarcts. The early diagnosis and the prompt treatment initiation can improve the prognosis and the evolution of this rare disorder.

Loss of Kmt2c in vivo leads to EMT, mitochondrial dysfunction and improved response to lapatinib in breast cancer.

Deep sequencing of human tumours has uncovered a previously unappreciated role for epigenetic regulators in tumorigenesis. H3K4 methyltransferase KMT2C/MLL3 is mutated in several solid malignancies, including more than 10% of breast tumours. To study the tumour suppressor role of KMT2C in breast cancer, we generated mouse models of Erbb2/Neu, Myc or PIK3CA-driven tumorigenesis, in which the Kmt2c locus is knocked out specifically in the luminal lineage of mouse mammary glands using the Cre recombinase. Kmt2c knock out mice develop tumours earlier, irrespective of the oncogene, assigning a bona fide tumour suppressor role for KMT2C in mammary tumorigenesis. Loss of Kmt2c induces extensive epigenetic and transcriptional changes, which lead to increased ERK1/2 activity, extracellular matrix re-organization, epithelial-to-mesenchymal transition and mitochondrial dysfunction, the latter associated with increased reactive oxygen species production. Loss of Kmt2c renders the Erbb2/Neu-driven tumours more responsive to lapatinib. Publicly available clinical datasets revealed an association of low Kmt2c gene expression and better long-term outcome. Collectively, our findings solidify the role of KMT2C as a tumour suppressor in breast cancer and identify dependencies that could be therapeutically amenable.

Short term starvation potentiates the efficacy of chemotherapy in triple negative breast cancer via metabolic reprogramming.

BACKGROUND: Chemotherapy (CT) is central to the treatment of triple negative breast cancer (TNBC), but drug toxicity and resistance place strong restrictions on treatment regimes. Fasting sensitizes cancer cells to a range of chemotherapeutic agents and also ameliorates CT-associated adverse effects. However, the molecular mechanism(s) by which fasting, or short-term starvation (STS), improves the efficacy of CT is poorly characterized. METHODS: The differential responses of breast cancer or near normal cell lines to combined STS and CT were assessed by cellular viability and integrity assays (Hoechst and PI staining, MTT or H2DCFDA staining, immunofluorescence), metabolic profiling (Seahorse analysis, metabolomics), gene expression (quantitative real-time PCR) and iRNA-mediated silencing. The clinical significance of the in vitro data was evaluated by bioinformatical integration of transcriptomic data from patient data bases: The Cancer Genome Atlas (TCGA), European Genome-phenome Archive (EGA), Gene Expression Omnibus (GEO) and a TNBC cohort. We further examined the translatability of our findings in vivo by establishing a murine syngeneic orthotopic mammary tumor-bearing model. RESULTS: We provide mechanistic insights into how preconditioning with STS enhances the susceptibility of breast cancer cells to CT. We showed that combined STS and CT enhanced cell death and increased reactive oxygen species (ROS) levels, in association with higher levels of DNA damage and decreased mRNA levels for the NRF2 targets genes NQO1 and TXNRD1 in TNBC cells compared to near normal cells. ROS enhancement was associated with compromised mitochondrial respiration and changes in the metabolic profile, which have a significant clinical prognostic and predictive value. Furthermore, we validate the safety and efficacy of combined periodic hypocaloric diet and CT in a TNBC mouse model. CONCLUSIONS: Our in vitro, in vivo and clinical findings provide a robust rationale for clinical trials on the therapeutic benefit of short-term caloric restriction as an adjuvant to CT in triple breast cancer treatment.

Integrated omics analysis for characterization of the contribution of high fructose corn syrup to non-alcoholic fatty liver disease in obesity.

BACKGROUND: High-Fructose Corn Syrup (HFCS), a sweetener rich in glucose and fructose, is nowadays widely used in beverages and processed foods; its consumption has been correlated to the emergence and progression of Non-Alcoholic Fatty Liver Disease (NAFLD). Nevertheless, the molecular mechanisms by which HFCS impacts hepatic metabolism remain scarce, especially in the context of obesity. Besides, the majority of current studies focuses either on the detrimental role of fructose in hepatic steatosis or compare separately the additive impact of fructose versus glucose in high fat diet-induced NAFLD. AIM: By engaging combined omics approaches, we sought to characterize the role of HFCS in obesity-associated NAFLD and reveal molecular processes, which mediate the exaggeration of steatosis under these conditions. METHODS: Herein, C57BL/6 mice were fed a normal-fat-diet (ND), a high-fat-diet (HFD) or a HFD supplemented with HFCS (HFD-HFCS) and upon examination of their metabolic and NAFLD phenotype, proteomic, lipidomic and metabolomic analyses were conducted to identify HFCS-related molecular alterations of the hepatic metabolic landscape in obesity. RESULTS: Although HFD and HFD-HFCS mice displayed comparable obesity, HFD-HFCS mice showed aggravation of hepatic steatosis, as analysis of the lipid droplet area in liver sections revealed (12,15 % of total section area in HFD vs 22,35 % in HFD-HFCS), increased NAFLD activity score (3,29 in HFD vs 4,86 in HFD-HFCS) and deteriorated hepatic insulin resistance, as compared to the HFD mice. Besides, the hepatic proteome of HFD-HFCS mice was characterized by a marked upregulation of 5 core proteins implicated in de novo lipogenesis (DNL), while an increased phosphatidyl-cholines(PC)/phosphatidyl-ethanolamines(PE) ratio (2.01 in HFD vs 3.04 in HFD-HFCS) was observed in the livers of HFD-HFCS versus HFD mice. Integrated analysis of the omics datasets indicated that Tricarboxylic Acid (TCA) cycle overactivation is likely contributing towards the intensification of steatosis during HFD-HFCS-induced NAFLD. CONCLUSION: Our results imply that HFCS significantly contributes to steatosis aggravation during obesity-related NAFLD, likely deriving from DNL upregulation, accompanied by TCA cycle overactivation and deteriorated hepatic insulin resistance.

Extracellular Galectin 4 Drives Immune Evasion and Promotes T-cell Apoptosis in Pancreatic Cancer.

Pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma (PDAC) is characterized by rich deposits of extracellular matrix (ECM), affecting the pathophysiology of the disease. Here, we identified galectin 4 (gal 4) as a cancer cell-produced protein that was deposited into the ECM of PDAC tumors and detected high-circulating levels of gal 4 in patients with PDAC. In orthotopic transplantation experiments, we observed increased infiltration of T cells and prolonged survival in immunocompetent mice transplanted with cancer cells with reduced expression of gal 4. Increased survival was not observed in immunodeficient RAG1-/- mice, demonstrating that the effect was mediated by the adaptive immune system. By performing single-cell RNA-sequencing, we found that the myeloid compartment and cancer-associated fibroblast (CAF) subtypes were altered in the transplanted tumors. Reduced gal 4 expression associated with a higher proportion of myofibroblastic CAFs and reduced numbers of inflammatory CAFs. We also found higher proportions of M1 macrophages, T cells, and antigen-presenting dendritic cells in tumors with reduced gal 4 expression. Using a coculture system, we observed that extracellular gal 4 induced apoptosis in T cells by binding N-glycosylation residues on CD3ε/δ. Hence, we show that gal 4 is involved in immune evasion and identify gal 4 as a promising drug target for overcoming immunosuppression in PDAC.

Genotoxin-producing Salmonella enterica induces tissue-specific types of DNA damage and DNA damage response outcomes.

Introduction: Typhoid toxin-expressing Salmonella enterica causes DNA damage in the intestinal mucosa in vivo, activating the DNA damage response (DDR) in the absence of inflammation. To understand whether the tissue microenvironment constrains the infection outcome, we compared the immune response and DDR patterns in the colon and liver of mice infected with a genotoxigenic strain or its isogenic control strain. Methods: In situ spatial transcriptomic and immunofluorescence have been used to assess DNA damage makers, activation of the DDR, innate immunity markers in a multiparametric analysis. Result: The presence of the typhoid toxin protected from colonic bacteria-induced inflammation, despite nuclear localization of p53, enhanced co-expression of type-I interferons (IfnbI) and the inflammasome sensor Aim2, both classic features of DNA-break-induced DDR activation. These effects were not observed in the livers of either infected group. Instead, in this tissue, the inflammatory response and DDR were associated with high oxidative stress-induced DNA damage. Conclusions: Our work highlights the relevance of the tissue microenvironment in enabling the typhoid toxin to suppress the host inflammatory response in vivo.

Diagnostically Challenging Subtypes of Invasive Lobular Carcinomas: How to Avoid Potential Diagnostic Pitfalls.

Invasive lobular carcinoma is the most common special breast carcinoma subtype, with unique morphological (discohesive cells, single-cell files, targetoid pattern) and immunohistochemical (loss of E-cadherin and ß-catenin staining) features. Moreover, ILC displays a poor response to neoadjuvant therapy, a different metastatic pattern compared to invasive breast carcinoma of no special type, as well as unique molecular characteristics. In addition to the classic variant of invasive lobular carcinoma, several other well-recognized variants exist, including classic, alveolar, tubulolobular, solid, pleomorphic, signet-ring, and mixed. Furthermore, three novel variants of invasive lobular carcinoma, i.e., with extracellular mucin production, papillary features, and tubular elements, have been described during the last decade. We herewith focus on the unique morphological and immunohistochemical characteristics of these novel varieties of invasive lobular carcinoma, as well as differential diagnostic considerations and potential diagnostic pitfalls, especially when dealing with biopsy specimens.

Nrf2 Downregulation Contributes to Epithelial-to-Mesenchymal Transition in Helicobacter pylori-Infected Cells.

BACKGROUND: Gastric cancer, the fifth most common cancer worldwide, is mainly linked to Helicobacter pylori infection. H. pylori induces chronic inflammation of the gastric mucosa associated with high oxidative stress. Our study aimed at assessing the implication of Nrf2, a major regulator of cellular redox homeostasis, in H. pylori-induced gastric carcinogenesis. METHODS: Using three different gastric epithelial cell lines, a non-cancerous (HFE-145) and two different subtypes of gastric cancer (AGS and MKN74), we analyzed the modulation of Nrf2 expression over time. After invalidation of Nrf2 by CRISPR-cas9, we assessed its role in H. pylori-induced epithelial-to-mesenchymal transition (EMT). Finally, we evaluated the expression of Nrf2 and ZEB1, a central EMT transcription factor, in human gastric tissues. RESULTS: We first demonstrated that the Nrf2 signaling pathway is differentially regulated depending on the infection stage. Rapidly and transiently activated, Nrf2 was downregulated 24 h post-infection in a VacA-dependent manner. We then demonstrated that Nrf2 invalidation leads to increased EMT, which is even exacerbated after H. pylori infection. Finally, Nrf2 expression tended to decrease in human patients' gastric mucosa infected with H. pylori. CONCLUSIONS: Our work supports the hypothesis that Nrf2 downregulation upon H. pylori infection participates in EMT, one of the most important events in gastric carcinogenesis.

4th Summer School in Immuno-Oncology, July 1st-3rd, 2021, Athens, Greece.

The 4th Summer School in Immuno-Oncology was held from July 1st-July 3rd as a web meeting. Many eminent researchers and leading oncologists from Europe and the USA working on basic, translational and clinical cancer research participated, presented, and discussed the most recent advances in cancer immunology and immunotherapy. Besides sharing the newest information in the field of cancer immunology and immunotherapy, the meeting also focused on the actual translation of new knowledge acquired in the lab to the clinical setting; particular emphasis was given to the mode of action of novel therapeutic modalities and to biomarkers helpful for treatment decision-making, as well as to means that may improve cancer immunotherapeutic protocols used for the treatment of a variety of malignancies. The main topics presented by the speakers included: (1) mechanisms of tumor immune evasion and resistance; (2) host-tumor interactions and means to regulate antitumor immunity; (3) exploitation of new biomarkers and tumor or immune signatures able to potentially guide therapeutic interventions; (4) emerging therapeutic modalities for cancer treatment and specific immunotherapeutics for thoracic, genito-urinary, gastrointestinal, skin and breast cancers; and (5) innovative treatment options and alternatives to minimize the toxic adverse events of cancer immunotherapy.