The identification of sulfide oxidation as a potential metabolism driving primary production on late Noachian Mars.

The transition of the martian climate from the wet Noachian era to the dry Hesperian (4.1-3.0 Gya) likely resulted in saline surface waters that were rich in sulfur species. Terrestrial analogue environments that possess a similar chemistry to these proposed waters can be used to develop an understanding of the diversity of microorganisms that could have persisted on Mars under such conditions. Here, we report on the chemistry and microbial community of the highly reducing sediment of Colour Peak springs, a sulfidic and saline spring system located within the Canadian High Arctic. DNA and cDNA 16S rRNA gene profiling demonstrated that the microbial community was dominated by sulfur oxidising bacteria, suggesting that primary production in the sediment was driven by chemolithoautotrophic sulfur oxidation. It is possible that the sulfur oxidising bacteria also supported the persistence of the additional taxa. Gibbs energy values calculated for the brines, based on the chemistry of Gale crater, suggested that the oxidation of reduced sulfur species was an energetically viable metabolism for life on early Mars.

Simulating microbial processes in extraterrestrial, aqueous environments.

Finding evidence of life elsewhere in the Solar System is dependent on understanding biotic processes that could occur within potentially habitable environments. Here, we describe a suite of high-pressure flow-through reactors that have been developed to investigate biotic and abiotic processes within simulated sub-surface martian and icy moon environments.

The transfer of unsterilized material from Mars to Phobos: Laboratory tests, modelling and statistical evaluation.

Sample return missions to Phobos are the subject of future exploration plans. Given the proximity of Phobos to Mars, Mars' potential to have supported life, and the possibility of material transfer from Mars to Phobos, careful consideration of planetary protection is required. If life exists, or ever existed, on Mars, there is a possibility that material carrying organisms could be present on Phobos and be collected by a sample return mission such as the Japanese Martian Moons eXplorer (MMX). Here we describe laboratory experiments, theoretical modelling and statistical analysis undertaken to quantify whether the likelihood of a sample from Phobos material containing unsterilized material transferred from Mars is less than 10-6, the threshold to transition between restricted and unrestricted sample return classification for planetary protection. We have created heat, impact and radiation sterilization models based on the Phobos environment, and through statistical analyses investigated the level of sterilization expected for martian material transferred to Phobos. These analyses indicate that radiation is the major sterilization factor, sterilizing the Phobos surface over timescales of millions of years. The specific events of most relevance in the Phobos sample return context are the 'young' cratering events on Mars that result in Zunil-sized craters, which can emplace a large mass of martian material on Phobos, in a short period of time, thus inhibiting the effects of radiation sterilization. Major unknowns that cannot yet be constrained accurately enough are found to drive the results - the most critical being the determination of exact crater ages to statistical certainty, and the initial biological loading on Mars prior to transfer. We find that, when taking a conservative perspective and assuming the best-case scenario for organism survival, for a 100 g sample of the Phobos regolith to be below the planetary protection requirement for unrestricted sample return, the initial biological loading on Mars must be <8.2 × 103cfu kg-1. For the planned MMX mission, a ∼10 g sample to be obtained from a 25-30 mm diameter core as planned would require an initial martian biological loading to be <1.6 × 104cfu kg-1, in order to remain compliant with the planetary protection threshold.

Glomeromycota communities survive extreme levels of metal toxicity in an orphan mining site.

Abandoned tailing basins and waste heaps of orphan mining sites are of great concern since extreme metal contamination makes soil improper for any human activity and is a permanent threat for nearby surroundings. Although spontaneous revegetation can occur, the process is slow or unsuccessful and rhizostabilisation strategies to reduce dispersal of contaminated dust represent an option to rehabilitate such sites. This requires selection of plants tolerant to such conditions, and optimization of their fitness and growth. Arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF) can enhance metal tolerance in moderately polluted soils, but their ability to survive extreme levels of metal contamination has not been reported. This question was addressed in the tailing basin and nearby waste heaps of an orphan mining site in southern France, reaching in the tailing basin exceptionally high contents of zinc (ppm: 97,333 total) and lead (ppm: 31,333 total). In order to contribute to a better understanding of AMF ecology under severe abiotic stress and to identify AMF associated with plants growing under such conditions, that may be considered in future revegetation and rhizostabilisation of highly polluted areas, nine plant species were sampled at different growing seasons and AMF root colonization was determined. Glomeromycota diversity was monitored in mycorrhizal roots by sequencing of the ribosomal LSU. This first survey of AMF in such highly contaminated soils revealed the presence of several AMF ribotypes, belonging mainly to the Glomerales, with some examples from the Paraglomerales and Diversisporales. AMF diversity and root colonization in the tailing basin were lower than in the less-contaminated waste heaps. A Paraglomus species previously identified in a polish mining site was common in roots of different plants. Presence of active AMF in such an environment is an outstanding finding, which should be clearly considered for the design of efficient rhizostabilisation processes.

The transcriptome of the arbuscular mycorrhizal fungus Glomus intraradices (DAOM 197198) reveals functional tradeoffs in an obligate symbiont.

• The arbuscular mycorrhizal symbiosis is arguably the most ecologically important eukaryotic symbiosis, yet it is poorly understood at the molecular level. To provide novel insights into the molecular basis of symbiosis-associated traits, we report the first genome-wide analysis of the transcriptome from Glomus intraradices DAOM 197198. • We generated a set of 25,906 nonredundant virtual transcripts (NRVTs) transcribed in germinated spores, extraradical mycelium and symbiotic roots using Sanger and 454 sequencing. NRVTs were used to construct an oligoarray for investigating gene expression. • We identified transcripts coding for the meiotic recombination machinery, as well as meiosis-specific proteins, suggesting that the lack of a known sexual cycle in G. intraradices is not a result of major deletions of genes essential for sexual reproduction and meiosis. Induced expression of genes encoding membrane transporters and small secreted proteins in intraradical mycelium, together with the lack of expression of hydrolytic enzymes acting on plant cell wall polysaccharides, are all features of G. intraradices that are shared with ectomycorrhizal symbionts and obligate biotrophic pathogens. • Our results illuminate the genetic basis of symbiosis-related traits of the most ancient lineage of plant biotrophs, advancing future research on these agriculturally and ecologically important symbionts.

Ineffective morphine treatment regimen for the control of Neonatal Abstinence Syndrome in buprenorphine- and methadone-exposed infants.

This study aimed to determine if morphine is effective in ameliorating Neonatal Abstinence Syndrome (NAS) symptoms to non-opioid-exposed control levels in methadone- and buprenorphine-exposed infants. A prospective, non-randomized comparison study with flexible dosing was undertaken in a large teaching maternity hospital in Australia. Twenty-five infants in the groups of buprenorphine-, methadone- and control non-opioid-exposed infants were compared (total n = 75 infants). Oral morphine sulphate (1 mg/ml) was administered every 4 h to opioid agonist-exposed infants. Modified Finnegan Withdrawal Scale (MFWS) scores determined dosing: score of 8-10: 0.5 mg/kg/day, 11-13: 0.7 mg/kg/day and 14+: 0.9 mg/kg/day. Withdrawal score, amount of morphine administered and length of hospital stay, were used to assess NAS over a 4-week follow-up period. No controls achieved a score higher than 7 on the MFWS. There was no significant difference in the percentage of infants requiring treatment between methadone (60%) and buprenorphine (48%) infants. For treated infants, significantly (P < 0.01) more morphine was administered to methadone (40.07 ± 3.95 mg) compared with buprenorphine infants (22.77 ± 4.29 mg) to attempt to control NAS. Following treatment initiation, significantly more (P < 0.01) methadone (87%) compared with buprenorphine infants (42%) continued to exceed scoring thresholds for morphine treatment requirement, and non-opioid-exposed control infant scores. For treated infants, there was no significant difference in length of hospital stay between methadone and buprenorphine infants. Morphine treatment was not entirely effective in ameliorating NAS to non-opioid-exposed control symptom levels in methadone or buprenorphine infants. The regimen may be less effective in methadone compared with buprenorphine infants.

A beta-1,3 glucan sulfate induces resistance in grapevine against Plasmopara viticola through priming of defense responses, including HR-like cell death.

Sulfated laminarin (PS3) has been shown previously to be an elicitor of plant defense reactions in tobacco and Arabidopsis and to induce protection against tobacco mosaic virus. Here, we have demonstrated the efficiency of PS3 in protecting a susceptible grapevine cultivar (Vitis vinifera cv. Marselan) against downy mildew (Plasmopara viticola) under glasshouse conditions. This induced resistance was associated with potentiated H2O2 production at the infection sites, upregulation of defense-related genes, callose and phenol depositions, and hypersensitive response-like cell death. Interestingly, similar responses were observed following P. viticola inoculation in a tolerant grapevine hybrid cultivar (Solaris). A pharmacological approach led us to conclude that both callose synthesis and jasmonic acid pathway contribute to PS3-induced resistance.

Medication use in patients with restless legs syndrome compared with a control population.

Primary restless legs syndrome (RLS) is a sensorimotor disorder causing chronic sleep deprivation in those with moderate to severe symptoms. It has been associated with other medical conditions, such as high blood pressure, depression and attention deficit hyperactive disorder (ADHD). If these conditions are more prevalent for RLS patients, then it would be expected RLS patients would use relatively more of the medications treating these conditions. Current medication use was obtained from 110 RLS patients and 54 age, race and gender-matched local-community controls. Each subject was diagnosed as primary RLS or having no indications for RLS by a clinician board-certified in sleep medicine. The RLS group used more medications than the control group even when medications used for treating RLS were excluded. Significantly more of the RLS patients than controls used anti-depressants, gastro-intestinal (GI) medications and asthma/allergy medications. RLS patients compared with those without RLS are more likely to use medications not related to treating RLS. Moreover they use medications for conditions that have not previously been considered related to RLS, i.e. GI and asthma/allergy conditions.

Medicago truncatula gene responses specific to arbuscular mycorrhiza interactions with different species and genera of Glomeromycota.

Plant genes exhibiting common responses to different arbuscular mycorrhizal (AM) fungi and not induced under other biological conditions have been sought for to identify specific markers for monitoring the AM symbiosis. A subset of 14 candidate Medicago truncatula genes was identified as being potentially mycorrhiza responsive in previous cDNA microarray analyses and exclusive to cDNA libraries derived from mycorrhizal root tissues. Transcriptional activity of the selected plant genes was compared during root interactions with seven AM fungi belonging to different species of Glomus, Acaulospora, Gigaspora, or Scutellospora, and under widely different biological conditions (mycorrhiza, phosphate fertilization, pathogenic/beneficial microbe interactions, incompatible plant genotype). Ten of the M. truncatula genes were commonly induced by all the tested AM fungal species, and all were activated by at least two fungi. Most of the plant genes were transcribed uniquely in mycorrhizal roots, and several were already active at the appressorium stage of fungal development. Novel data provide evidence that common recognition responses to phylogenetically different Glomeromycota exist in plants during events that are unique to mycorrhiza interactions. They indicate that plants should possess a mycorrhiza-specific genetic program which is comodulated by a broad spectrum of AM fungi.

Common gene expression in Medicago truncatula roots in response to Pseudomonas fluorescens colonization, mycorrhiza development and nodulation.

• Beneficial rhizosphere microorganisms may share similar molecular steps during root colonization. To test this hypothesis, we compared Medicago truncatula Gaertn. gene expression in roots colonized, or not colonized, by Glomus mosseae BEG12, Pseudomonas fluorescens C7R12 or Sinorhizobium meliloti 2011. • Pseudomonas fluorescens C7R12 formed colonies on the surface of M. truncatula roots and colonized root tissues intercellularly and intracellularly in a way similar to that previously described for other plants. • Semiquantitative reverse transcriptase polymerase chain reaction of a set of 12 mycorrhiza upregulated M. truncatula genes revealed different expression profiles in roots 3 weeks after inoculation with P. fluorescens or S. meliloti. Pseudomonas fluorescens colonization activated seven of the plant genes while nodulated root systems showed increased expression in only three genes and five appeared to be downregulated. • This first report of similar gene induction by a fluorescent pseudomonad and a mycorrhizal fungus in roots supports the hypothesis that some plant cell programmes may be shared during root colonization by these beneficial microorganisms. Less similarity existed in expression of the gene set with nodulation by S. meliloti.

Expression profiling of up-regulated plant and fungal genes in early and late stages of Medicago truncatula-Glomus mosseae interactions.

Suppression subtractive hybridization (SSH), expression profiling and EST sequencing identified 12 plant genes and six fungal genes that are expressed in the arbuscular mycorrhizal symbiosis between Medicago truncatula and Glomus mosseae. All the plant genes and three of the fungal genes were up-regulated in symbiotic tissues. Expression of 15 of the genes is described for the first time in mycorrhizal roots and two are novel sequences. Six M. truncatula genes were also activated during appressorium formation at the root surface, suggesting a role in this early stage of mycorrhiza establishment, whilst the other six plant genes were only induced in the late stages of mycorrhization and could be involved in the development or functioning of the symbiosis. Phosphate fertilization had no significant influence on expression of any of the plant genes. Expression profiling of G. mosseae genes indicated that two of them may be associated with appressorium development on roots and one with arbuscule formation or function. The other three fungal genes were expressed throughout the life-cycle of G. mosseae.

Family needs and burdens of mentally ill offenders.

A growing number of research projects have been devoted to the study of needs, burdens and intervention programmes of families of psychiatric patients due to the emphasis on deinstitutionalization and community integration. Although it is noted that burdens for families when looking after a patient with a criminal history are even heavier and more complicated, studies on identifying family needs and burdens for mentally ill offenders have been very limited. This paper reviews literature on family burdens and studies on family needs for psychiatric patients with a forensic history. Methodological problems of available studies are discussed. In addition, a theoretical model that can be used as a conceptual guide for the study of burdens of families of mentally ill offenders is postulated. Directions for further research are discussed.

Galantamine: a new alzheimer drug with a past life.

OBJECTIVE: To review the historic, pharmacologic, pharmacokinetic, therapeutic, and toxicologic features of galantamine, a new acetylcholinesterase inhibitor, and to assess its role in the treatment of Alzheimer disease symptoms. DATA SOURCES: A search of articles was conducted using MEDLINE, TOXLINE, and the literature database Psychinfo, from 1966 to June 1999. The manufacturers, Janssen and SoPharm (Bulgaria), were contacted to obtain relevant preclinical data. Published textbooks of meeting symposia were also reviewed. STUDY SELECTION: Studies with animals and humans addressing preclinical pharmacology, human studies on pharmacokinetics, open clinical trials, and controlled studies were evaluated. DATA EXTRACTION: Relevant data were extracted from published studies and meeting abstracts only. DATA SYNTHESIS: Galantamine has an extensive record of activity as a reversal agent for neuromuscular blockade. Galantamine is also effective in the treatment of mild to moderate Alzheimer disease symptoms. Its efficacy versus similar Alzheimer treatment agents has yet to be determined. Adverse effects are gastrointestinal in nature and usually appear during the first weeks of therapy. CONCLUSIONS: Galantamine is a useful agent for the treatment of Alzheimer disease and for the reversal of neuromuscular blockade. It acts as both an acetylcholinesterase inhibitor and a nicotinic receptor agonist.

25S rDNA-based molecular monitoring of glomalean fungi in sewage sludge-treated field plots.

Recycling of sewage wastes in agriculture is likely to affect the biological activity of soils through contamination of ecosystems by pathogens and metallic or organic micropollutants. The impact of sewage sludge spreading under field conditions on arbuscular mycorrhiza (AM) formation by a community of glomalean fungi was evaluated using a nested polymerase chain reaction (PCR) and discriminating primers based on 25S rDNA polymorphisms to detect different fungal species within root systems. Medicago truncatula was grown in soil of field plots amended or not with a composted sewage sludge, spiked or not with organic or metallic micropollutants. Overall AM development in roots decreased with sewage sludge application, and the relative abundance of five AM fungal morphotypes in root fragments was modified by the input of composted sludges. Sewage sludge spiked or not with organic pollutants had a generally positive effect on the relative diversity of AM fungal populations in planta, whereas after spreading of the sludge spiked with metallic pollutants, no variation was observed in the abundance of different species.

"They never tell you about the consequences": young people's awareness of sexually transmitted infections.

Young people are at risk from sexually transmitted infections (STIs)--the incidence of chlamydia in the UK is highest among young women aged 16-19. Despite this, young people lack knowledge about STIs and are more aware of the risks of unwanted pregnancy than their risk of acquiring an STI. This study used qualitative and quantitative methods to examine what teenagers know about STIs, their prevention, symptoms, treatment and services. Only one-third of respondents recognized chlamydia as an STI. The little knowledge of STIs that was revealed was superficial. Few were aware that special services existed for STIs. Condoms were seen as contraception, not as a method of preventing infection transmission. High teenage pregnancy rates have received much publicity but less attention has been paid to rising STI incidence. Programmes aimed at decreasing pregnancy rates through adoption of effective hormonal contraception not only fail to address STIs but may be detrimental to prevention efforts.

Medicago truncatula ENOD11: a novel RPRP-encoding early nodulin gene expressed during mycorrhization in arbuscule-containing cells.

Leguminous plants establish endosymbiotic associations with both rhizobia (nitrogen fixation) and arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (phosphate uptake). These associations involve controlled entry of the soil microsymbiont into the root and the coordinated differentiation of the respective partners to generate the appropriate exchange interfaces. As part of a study to evaluate analogies at the molecular level between these two plant-microbe interactions, we focused on genes from Medicago truncatula encoding putative cell wall repetitive proline-rich proteins (RPRPs) expressed during the early stages of root nodulation. Here we report that a novel RPRP-encoding gene, MtENOD11, is transcribed during preinfection and infection stages of nodulation in root and nodule tissues. By means of reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction and a promoter-reporter gene strategy, we demonstrate that this gene is also expressed during root colonization by endomycorrhizal fungi in inner cortical cells containing recently formed arbuscules. In contrast, no activation of MtENOD11 is observed during root colonization by a nonsymbiotic, biotrophic Rhizoctonia fungal species. Analysis of transgenic Medicago spp. plants expressing pMtENOD11-gusA also revealed that this gene is transcribed in a variety of nonsymbiotic specialized cell types in the root, shoot, and developing seed, either sharing high secretion/metabolite exchange activity or subject to regulated modifications in cell shape. The potential role of early nodulins with atypical RPRP structures such as ENOD11 and ENOD12 in symbiotic and nonsymbiotic cellular contexts is discussed.

Work-related social skills training for people with schizophrenia in Hong Kong.

This article describes a prospective blinded outcome study of a vocational social skills training program developed in Hong Kong for people affected by chronic schizophrenia. The aim was to improve their ability to find and keep a job. Participants were randomly assigned to three groups: a social skills training group with followup support, a social skills training group without followup support, and a comparison group who received standard after-care treatment. Participants who had participated in either of the training groups statistically outperformed those in the comparison group. Those receiving the training plus followup were statistically much more successful at finding and keeping a job than participants in either of the other two groups. A comparatively small amount of followup contact (a monthly group meeting or phone call) for 3 months after the training finished had a very significant effect on participants' success rate.