Peroxiredoxin 6 (Prx6) of Penaeus vannamei and effect of phenanthrene on Prx6 and glutathione peroxidase 4 expression, glutathione-dependent peroxidase activity and lipid peroxidation.

Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), such as phenanthrene (PHE), are common pollutants found in coastal areas where shrimp farming is developed. Even though PAHs can have adverse effects on physiology, shrimp can detoxify and metabolize toxic compounds and neutralize the reactive oxygen species (ROS) produced during this process. This requires the activation of multiple antioxidant enzymes, including peroxiredoxin 6 (Prx6). Prx6 uses glutathione (GSH) to reduce phospholipid hydroperoxides, a function shared with GSH peroxidase 4 (GPx4). Prx6 has been scarcely studied in crustaceans exposed to pollutants. Herein, we report a novel Prx6 from the shrimp Penaeus vannamei that is abundantly expressed in gills and hepatopancreas. To elucidate the involvement of Prx6 in response to PAHs, we analyzed its expression in the hepatopancreas of shrimp sub-lethally exposed to PHE (3.3 µg/L) and acetone (control) for 24, 48, 72, and 96 h, along with GPx4 expression, GSH-dependent peroxidase activity, and lipid peroxidation (indicated by TBARS). We found that GPx4 expression is not affected by PHE, but Prx6 expression and peroxidase activity decreased during the trial. This might contribute to the rise of TBARS found at 48 h of exposure. However, maintaining GPx4 expression could aid to minimize lipid damage during longer periods of exposure to PHE.

Two hexokinases of the shrimp Penaeus (Litopenaeus) vannamei are differentially expressed during oxygen limited conditions.

The white shrimp Penaeus (Litopenaeus) vannamei is the most cultivated shrimp worldwide. Compared to other shrimp species, it has higher resistance to adverse conditions. During hypoxia, the shrimp reduces oxygen consumption and adjusts energy metabolism via anaerobic glycolysis, among other strategies. Hexokinase (HK) is the first enzyme of glycolysis and a key regulation point. In mammals and other vertebrates, there are several tissue-specific HK isoforms with differences in expression and enzyme activity. In contrast, crustacean HKs have been relatively little studied. We studied the P. vannamei HK isoforms during hypoxia and reoxygenation. We cloned two HK1 sequences named HK1-long (1455 bp) and HK1-short (1302 bp), and one HK2 (1344 bp). In normoxia, total HK1 expression is higher in hepatopancreas, while HK2 is higher in gills. Severe hypoxia (1 mg/L of DO) after 12 h exposure and 1 h of reoxygenation increased HK1 expression in both organs, but HK2 expression changed differentially. In hepatopancreas, HK2 expression increased in 6 and 12 h of hypoxia but diminished to normoxia levels after reoxygenation. In gills, HK2 expression decreased after 12 h of hypoxia. HK activity increased in hepatopancreas after 12 h hypoxia, opposite to gills. These results indicate that shrimp HK isoforms respond to hypoxia and reoxygenation in a tissue-specific manner. Intracellular glucose levels did not change in any case, showing the shrimp ability to maintain glucose homeostasis during hypoxia.

Responses and modulation of the white shrimp Litopenaeus vannamei glutathione peroxidases 2 and 4 during hypoxia, reoxygenation and GPx4 knock-down.

Glutathione peroxidases (GPxs) are important antioxidant enzymes that act at distinct levels of the antioxidant defense. In vertebrates, there are several glutathione peroxidase (GPx) isoforms with different cellular and tissue distribution, but little is known about their interrelationships. The shrimp Litopenaeus vannamei is the main crustacean cultivated worldwide. It is affected by environmental stressors, including hypoxia and reoxygenation that cause reactive oxygen species accumulation. Thus, the antioxidant response modulation is key for shrimp resilience. Recently, several GPx isoforms genes were identified in the L. vannamei genome sequence, but their functions are just beginning to be studied. As in vertebrates, shrimp GPx isoforms can present differences in their antioxidant responses. Also, there could be interrelationships among the isoforms that may influence their responses. We evaluated shrimp GPx2 and GPx4 expressions during hypoxia, reoxygenation, and GPx4 knock-down using RNAi for silencing, as well as the enzymatic activity of total GPx and GPx4. Also, glutathione content in hepatopancreas was evaluated. GPx2 and GPx4 presented similar expression patterns during hypoxia and reoxygenation. Their expressions decreased during hypoxia and were reestablished in reoxygenation at 6 h in non-silenced shrimp. GPx2 expression was down-regulated by GPx4 knock-down, suggesting that GPx4 affects GPx2 expression. Total GPx activity changed in hypoxia and reoxygenation at 6 h but not at 12 h, while GPx4 activity was not affected by any stressor. The GSH/GSSG ratio in hepatopancreas indicated that at early hours, the redox status remains well-modulated but at 12 h it is impaired by hypoxia and reoxygenation.

The pyruvate kinase of the whiteleg shrimp Litopenaeus vannamei: Gene structure and responses to short term hypoxia.

The shrimp Litopenaeus vannamei is the main farmed crustacean worldwide. This shrimp suffers environmental changes in oxygen availability that affect its energy metabolism. Pyruvate kinase (PK) catalyzes the last reaction of glycolysis and is key for the regulation of glycolysis and gluconeogenesis. There is ample knowledge about mammalian PK, but in crustaceans, the information is very scarce. In this study, we analyzed in silico the structures of the PK gene and protein. Also, the effects of hypoxia on gene expression, enzymatic activity, glucose, and lactate in hepatopancreas and muscle were analyzed. The PK gene is 15,103 bp and contains 11 exons and 10 introns, producing four mRNA variants by alternative splicing and named PK1, PK2, PK3 and PK4, that results in two proteins with longer C-terminus and two with a 12 bp insertion. The promoter contains putative binding sites for transcription factors (TF) that are typically involved in stress responses. The deduced amino acid sequences contain the classic domains, binding sites for allosteric effectors and potential reversible phosphorylation residues. Protein modeling indicates a homotetramer with highly conserved structure. The effect of hypoxia for 6 and 12 h showed tissue-specific patterns, with higher expression, enzyme activity and lactate in muscle, but higher glucose in hepatopancreas. Changes in response to hypoxia were detected at 12 h in expression with induction in muscle and reduction in hepatopancreas, while enzyme activity was maintained, and glucose and lactate decreased. These results show rapid changes in expression and metabolites, while enzyme activity was maintained to cope with short-term hypoxia.

Shrimp Glucose-6-phosphatase 2 (G6Pase 2): a second isoform of G6Pase in the Pacific white shrimp and regulation of G6Pase 1 and 2 isoforms via HIF-1 during hypoxia and reoxygenation in juveniles.

Animals suffer hypoxia when their oxygen consumption is larger than the oxygen available. Hypoxia affects the white shrimp Penaeus (Litopenaeus) vannamei, both in their natural habitat and in cultivation farms. Shrimp regulates some enzymes that participate in energy production pathways as a strategy to survive during hypoxia. Glucose-6-phosphatase (G6Pase) is key to maintain blood glucose homeostasis through gluconeogenesis and glycogenolysis. We previously reported a shrimp G6Pase gene (G6Pase1) and in this work, we report a second isoform that we named G6Pase2. The expression of the two isoforms was evaluated in oxygen limited conditions and during silencing of the transcription factor HIF-1. High G6Pase activity was detected in hepatopancreas followed by muscle and gills under good oxygen and feeding conditions. Gene expression of both isoforms was analyzed in normoxia, hypoxia and reoxygenation in hepatopancreas and gills, and in HIF-1-silenced shrimp. In fed shrimp with normal dissolved oxygen (DO) (5.0 mg L- 1 DO) the expression of G6Pase1 was detected in gills, but not in hepatopancreas or muscle, while G6Pase2 expression was undetectable in all three tissues. In hepatopancreas, G6Pase1 is induced at 3 and 48 h of hypoxia, while G6Pase2 is down-regulated in the same time points but in reoxygenation, both due to the knock-down of HIF-1. In gills, only G6Pase1 was detected, and was induced by the silencing of HIF-1 only after 3 h of reoxygenation. Therefore, the expression of the two isoforms appears to be regulated by HIF-1 at transcriptional level in response to oxygen deprivation and subsequent recovery of oxygen levels.

The combination of hypoxia and high temperature affects heat shock, anaerobic metabolism, and pentose phosphate pathway key components responses in the white shrimp (Litopenaeus vannamei).

Due to global warming, world water bodies have higher temperatures and lower oxygen concentrations that affect aquatic species including the white shrimp Litopenaeus vannamei. This species withstands these conditions, but the information of the physiological responses that allow them to survive are scarce. We analyzed the effects of high temperature, hypoxia, reoxygenation, and the combination of these factors on the relative expression of selected genes: HSF1, Hsp70, p53, TIGAR, HIF-1α, and VEGF1-3 in gills of L. vannamei. Additionally, glucose, lactate, NADP, and NADPH were determined. HSF1 was up-regulated in the high temperature and oxygen stress conditions, but Hsp70 was up-regulated only in reoxygenation at both temperatures. HIF-1α was also up-regulated by reoxygenation in both temperatures. Meanwhile, the VEGF genes were not altered by the stress conditions, since none of them changed expression drastically. p53 relative expression remained stable at the tested stress conditions, which prompts to the maintenance of antioxidant defenses. TIGAR expression was induced in normoxia and hypoxia at high temperature, which induced NADPH content helping to scavenge reactive oxygen species (ROS). Additionally, high temperature caused higher glucose and lactate content in normoxia and hypoxia, indicating carbohydrate mobilization and a switch to anaerobic metabolism. The results showed that HSF1, the anaerobic metabolism and the pentose phosphate pathway (PPP) are crucial for the shrimp response to these abiotic stress conditions and contribute to their survival.

p53 knock-down and hypoxia affects glutathione peroxidase 4 antioxidant response in hepatopancreas of the white shrimp Litopenaeus vannamei.

Hypoxia (<2 mg O2/L) is one of the main environmental stressors that affects aquatic organisms, including the white shrimp (Litopenaeus vannamei). During hypoxia, reactive oxygen species (ROS) accumulation induces oxidative stress and damage to biomolecules. Redox state and ROS overproduction are modulated by the antioxidant system that is composed of several antioxidant enzymes, proteins, and other small compounds. Glutathione peroxidase 4 (GPx4) has emerged as an important antioxidant enzyme with cytoprotective roles. In vertebrates, antioxidant and pro-oxidant stress responses are regulated by several factors, including the p53 protein. However, little is known about GPx4 responses in crustaceans and the regulation by p53. Herein we analyzed and characterized the L. vannamei GPx4 and evaluated the responses to hypoxia and p53 knock-down. We found a unique GPx4 gene that produces five transcript variants (TVs) and only two protein isoforms with distinct cellular localization. GPx4 expression in hepatopancreas during hypoxia and p53 knock-down changed during short and long-term hypoxia, suggesting that GPx4 may be a sensitive indicator of antioxidant imbalance during stress. Knock-down of p53 induced a reduction in GPx4 expression, indicating that p53 modulates GPx4 responses during stress. This agrees with our findings of putative consensus sequences for p53 in the GPx4 gene promoter by in silico analysis. Also, the antioxidant response was effective in preventing major protein damage during hypoxia since no changes were detected in carbonylated proteins content in hepatopancreas during hypoxia. Conversely, p53 knock-down produced significant changes in carbonylated proteins.

The anaplerotic pyruvate carboxylase from white shrimp Litopenaeus vannamei: Gene structure, molecular characterization, protein modelling and expression during hypoxia.

Hypoxic zones are spreading worldwide in marine environments affecting many organisms. Shrimp and other marine crustaceans can withstand environmental hypoxia using several strategies, including the regulation of energy producing metabolic pathways. Pyruvate carboxylase (PC) catalyzes the first reaction of gluconeogenesis to produce oxaloacetate from pyruvate. In mammals, PC also participates in lipogenesis, insulin secretion and other processes, but this enzyme has been scarcely studied in marine invertebrates. In this work, we characterized the gene encoding PC in the white shrimp Litopenaeus vannamei, modelled the protein structure and evaluated its gene expression in hepatopancreas during hypoxia, as well as glucose and lactate concentrations. The PC gene codes for a mitochondrial protein and has 21 coding exons and 4 non-coding exons that generate three transcript variants with differences only in the 5'-UTR. Total PC expression is more abundant in hepatopancreas compared to gills or muscle, indicating tissue-specific expression. Under hypoxic conditions of 1.53 mg/L dissolved oxygen, PC expression is maintained in hepatopancreas, indicating its key role even in energy-limited conditions. Finally, both glucose and lactate concentrations were maintained under hypoxia for 24-48 h in hepatopancreas.

The bifunctional 6-phosphofructokinase-2/fructose-2,6-bisphosphatase from the shrimp Litopenaeus vannamei: Molecular characterization and down-regulation of expression in response to severe hypoxia.

Hypoxia is a frequent stressor in marine environments with multiple adverse effects on marine species. The white shrimp Litopenaeus vannamei withstands hypoxic conditions by activating anaerobic metabolism with tissue-specific changes in glycolytic and gluconeogenic enzymes. In animal cells, glycolytic/gluconeogenic fluxes are highly controlled by the levels of fructose-2,6-bisphosphate (F-2,6-P2), a signal metabolite synthesized and degraded by the bifunctional enzyme 6-phosphofructo-2-kinase/fructose-2,6-bisphosphatase (PFK-2/FBPase-2). PFK-2/FBPase-2 has been studied in vertebrates and some invertebrates, but as far as we know, there are no reports on PFK-2/FBPase-2 from crustaceans. In the present work, we obtained cDNA nucleotide sequences corresponding to two mRNAs for PFK-2/FBPase-2 and named them PFKFBP1 (1644 bp) and PFKFBP2 (1566 bp), from the white shrimp L. vannamei. The deduced PFKFBP1 and PFKFBP2 are 547 and 521 amino acids long, respectively. Both proteins share 99.23% of identity, and only differ in 26 additional amino acids present in the kinase domain of the PFKFBP1. The kinase and phosphatase domains are highly conserved in sequence and structure between both isoforms and other proteins from diverse taxa. Total expression of PFKFBP1-2 is tissue-specific, more abundant in gills than in hepatopancreas and undetectable in muscle. Moreover, severe hypoxia (1 mg/L of DO) decreased expression of PFKFBP1-2 in gills while anaerobic glycolysis was induced, as indicated by accumulation of cellular lactate. These results suggest that negative regulation of PFKFBP1-2 at expression level is necessary to set up anaerobic glycolysis in the cells during the response to hypoxia.

HIF-1 is involved in the regulation of expression of metallothionein and apoptosis incidence in different oxygen conditions in the white shrimp Litopenaeus vannamei.

The white shrimp Litopenaeus vannamei is exposed to hypoxic conditions in natural habitats and in shrimp farms. Hypoxia can retard growth, development and affect survival in shrimp. The hypoxia-inducible factor 1 (HIF-1) regulates many genes involved in glucose metabolism, antioxidant proteins, including metallothionein (MT) and apoptosis. In previous studies we found that the L. vannamei MT gene expression changed during hypoxia, and MT silencing altered cell apoptosis; in this study we investigated whether the silencing of HIF-1 affected MT expression and apoptosis. Double-stranded RNA (dsRNA) was used to silence HIF-1α and HIF-1ß under normoxia, hypoxia, and hypoxia plus reoxygenation. Expression of HIF-1α, HIF-1ß and MT, and apoptosis in hemocytes or caspase-3 expression in gills, were measured at 0, 3, 24 and 48 h of hypoxia and hypoxia followed by 1 h of reoxygenation. The results showed that hemocytes HIF-1α expression was induced during hypoxia and reoxygenation at 3 h, while HIF-1ß decreased at 24 and 48 h. In normoxia, HIF-1 silencing in hemocytes increased apoptosis at 3 h and decreased at 48 h; while in gills, caspase-3 increased at 3, 24 and 48 h. In hypoxia, HIF-1 silencing decreased apoptosis in hemocytes at 3 h, but caspase-3 increased in gills. During reoxygenation, apoptosis in hemocytes and caspase-3 in gills increased. During normoxia in hemocytes, silencing of HIF-1 decreased MT expression, but in gills, MT increased. During hypoxia and reoxygenation, silencing induced MT in hemocytes and gills. These results indicate HIF-1 differential participation in MT expression regulation and apoptosis during different oxygen conditions.

The gluconeogenic glucose-6-phosphatase gene is expressed during oxygen-limited conditions in the white shrimp Penaeus (Litopenaeus) vannamei: Molecular cloning, membrane protein modeling and transcript modulation in gills and hepatopancreas.

The white shrimp Penaeus (Litopenaeus) vannamei is the most economically important crustacean species cultivated in the Western Hemisphere. This crustacean shifts its metabolism to survive under extreme environmental conditions such as hypoxia, although for a limited time. Glucose-6-phosphatase (G6Pase) is a key enzyme contributing to maintain blood glucose homeostasis through gluconeogenesis and glycogenolysis. To our knowledge, there are no current detailed studies about cDNA or gene sequences of G6Pase from any crustacean reported. Herein we report the shrimp P. (L.) vannamei cDNA and gene sequences. The gene contains seven exons interrupted by six introns. The deduced amino acid sequence has 35% identity to other homolog proteins, with the catalytic amino acids conserved and phylogenetically close to the corresponding invertebrate homologs. Protein molecular modeling predicted eight transmembrane helices with the catalytic site oriented towards the lumen of the endoplasmic reticulum. G6Pase expression under normoxic conditions was evaluated in hepatopancreas, gills, and muscle and the highest transcript abundance was detected in hepatopancreas. In response to different times of hypoxia, G6Pase mRNA expression did not change in hepatopancreas and became undetectable in muscle; however, in gills, its expression increased after 3 h and 24 h of oxygen limitation, indicating its essential role to maintain glycemic control in these conditions.

Combined hypoxia and high temperature affect differentially the response of antioxidant enzymes, glutathione and hydrogen peroxide in the white shrimp Litopenaeus vannamei.

Low oxygen concentration in water (hypoxia) and high temperature are becoming more frequent due to climate change, forcing animals to endure stress or decease. Hypoxia and high temperature stress can lead to reactive oxygen species (ROS) accumulation and oxidative damage to the organisms. The shrimp Litopenaeus vannamei is the most cultivated crustacean worldwide. The aim of this study was to evaluate the expression and enzymatic activity of glutathione peroxidase (GPx), catalase (CAT) and cytosolic manganese superoxide dismutase (cMnSOD) in gills and hepatopancreas from L. vannamei in response to two combined stressors: hypoxia and reoxygenation at control and high temperature (28 vs 35 °C, respectively). In addition, glutathione and hydrogen peroxide content were analyzed. The changes were mainly tissue-specific. In gills, cMnSOD expression and enzymatic activity increased in response to the interactions between oxygen variation and thermal stress, while GPx and CAT were maintained. More changes occurred in GPx, CAT and MnSOD in hepatopancreas than in gills, mainly due to the effect of the individual stress factors of thermal stress or oxygen variations. On the other hand, the redox state of glutathione indicated that during high temperature, changes in the GSH/GSSG ratio occurred due to the fluctuations of GSSG. Hydrogen peroxide concentration was not affected by thermal stress or oxygen variations in hepatopancreas, whereas in gills, it was not detected. Altogether, these results indicate a complex pattern of antioxidant response to hypoxia, reoxygenation, high temperature and their combinations.

Mitochondrial manganese superoxide dismutase knock-down increases oxidative stress and caspase-3 activity in the white shrimp Litopenaeus vannamei exposed to high temperature, hypoxia, and reoxygenation.

Shrimp are increasingly exposed to warmer temperatures and lower oxygen concentrations in their habitat due to climate change. These conditions may lead to oxidative stress and apoptosis. We studied the effects of high temperature, hypoxia, reoxygenation, and the combination of these factors on lipid peroxidation, protein carbonylation, and caspase-3 activity in gills of white shrimp Litopenaeus vannamei. Silencing of mitochondrial manganese superoxide dismutase (mMnSOD) was used to determine the role of this enzyme in response to the abiotic stressors described above, to avoid oxidative damage and apoptosis. In addition, mMnSOD gene expression and mitochondrial SOD activity were evaluated to determine the efficiency of silencing this enzyme. The results showed that there was no effect of the abiotic stress conditions on the thiobarbituric acid reactive substances (TBARS), but protein carbonylation increased in all the oxidative stress treatments and caspase-3 activity decreased in hypoxia at 28 °C. On the other hand, mMnSOD-silenced shrimp experienced higher oxidative stress, since TBARS, carbonylated proteins and caspase-3 activity increased in some silenced treatments. Unexpectedly, mitochondrial SOD activity increased in some of the silenced treatments as well. Altogether, these results suggest that mMnSOD has a key role in shrimp for the prevention of oxidative damage development and induction of apoptosis in response to hypoxia, reoxygenation, high temperature, and their interactions, as conditions derived from climate change.

Mitochondrial manganese superoxide dismutase from the shrimp Litopenaeus vannamei: Molecular characterization and effect of high temperature, hypoxia and reoxygenation on expression and enzyme activity.

Climate warming has been increasing ocean water temperature and decreasing oxygen concentrations, exposing aquatic organisms to environmental stress conditions. The shrimp Litopenaeus vannamei manages to survive these harsh environmental conditions by enhancing their antioxidant defenses, among other strategies. In this study, we report the mitochondrial manganese superoxide dismutase (mMnSOD) nucleotide and deduced amino acid sequences and its gene expression in L. vannamei tissues. The deduced protein has 220 amino acids with a signal peptide of 20 amino acids. Expression of mMnSOD was analyzed in hepatopancreas, gills and muscle, where gills had highest expression in normoxic conditions. In addition, shrimp were subjected to high temperature, hypoxia and reoxygenation to analyze the effect on the expression of mMnSOD and SOD activity in mitochondria. High temperature and hypoxia showed a synergistic effect in the up-regulation on expression of mMnSOD in gills and hepatopancreas. Moreover, induction in SOD activity was found in the mitochondrial fraction from gills of normoxia at high temperature, probably due to an overproduction of reactive oxygen species caused by an elevated metabolic rate due to the stress temperature. These results suggest that the combined stress conditions of hypoxia and high temperature trigger molecularly the antioxidant response in L. vannamei in a higher degree than only one stressor.

Regulation of glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate dehydrogenase by hypoxia inducible factor 1 in the white shrimp Litopenaeus vannamei during hypoxia and reoxygenation.

Hypoxia is a frequent source of stress in the estuarine habitat of the white shrimp Litopenaeus vannamei. During hypoxia, L. vannamei gill cells rely more heavily on anaerobic glycolysis to obtain ATP. This is mediated by transcriptional up-regulation of glycolytic enzymes including glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate dehydrogenase (GAPDH). The hypoxia inducible factor 1 (HIF-1) is an important transcriptional activator of several glycolytic enzymes during hypoxia in diverse animals, including crustaceans. In this work, we cloned and sequenced a fragment corresponding to the 5' flank of the GAPDH gene and identified a putative HIF-1 binding site, as well as sites for other transcription factors involved in the hypoxia signaling pathway. To investigate the role of HIF-1 in GAPDH regulation, we simultaneously injected double-stranded RNA (dsRNA) into shrimp to silence HIF-1α and HIF-1ß under normoxia, hypoxia, and hypoxia followed by reoxygenation, and then measured gill HIF-1α, HIF-1ß expression, GAPDH expression and activity, and glucose and lactate concentrations at 0, 3, 24 and 48 h. During normoxia, HIF-1 silencing induced up-regulation of GAPDH transcripts and activity, suggesting that expression is down-regulated via HIF-1 under these conditions. In contrast, HIF-1 silencing during hypoxia abolished the increases in GAPDH expression and activity, glucose and lactate concentrations. Finally, HIF-1 silencing during hypoxia-reoxygenation prevented the increase in GAPDH expression, however, those changes were not reflected in GAPDH activity and lactate accumulation. Altogether, these results indicate that GAPDH and glycolysis are transcriptionally regulated by HIF-1 in gills of white shrimp.

Phosphoenolpyruvate carboxykinase cytosolic and mitochondrial isoforms are expressed and active during hypoxia in the white shrimp Litopenaeus vannamei.

Hypoxic zones in marine environments are spreading around the world affecting the survival of many organisms. Marine animals have several strategies to respond to hypoxia, including the regulation of gluconeogenesis. Phosphoenolpyruvate carboxykinase (PEPCK) is a key regulatory enzyme of gluconeogenesis. The objective of this work was to study two isoforms of PEPCK, one mitochondrial (PEPKC-M) and one cytosolic (PEPCK-C), from the white shrimp Litopenaeus vannamei and the response to hypoxia. Both PEPCK isoforms are 72 kDa proteins and have 92% identity at the amino acid level. The mitochondrial isoform has a N-terminal signal peptide for mitochondrial import. Gene expression and enzymatic activity in subcellular fractions were detected in gills, hepatopancreas and muscle in normoxic and hypoxic conditions. Expression of PEPCK-C was higher than PEPCK-M in all the tissues and induced in response to hypoxia at 48 h in hepatopancreas, while the enzymatic activity of PEPCK-M was higher than PEPCK-C in gills and hepatopancreas, but not in muscle and also increased in response to hypoxia in hepatopancreas but decreased in gills and muscle. During limiting oxygen conditions, shrimp tissues obtain energy by inducing anaerobic glycolysis, and although gluconeogenesis implies energy investment, due to the need to maintain glucose homeostasis, these gluconeogenic enzymes are active with contrasting behaviors in the cytosol and mitochondrial cell compartments and appear to be up-regulated in hepatopancreas indicating this tissue pivotal role in gluconeogenesis during the response to hypoxia.

The glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate dehydrogenase of the shrimp Litopenaeus vannamei: Molecular cloning, characterization and expression during hypoxia.

Some marine crustaceans like the white shrimp Litopenaeus vannamei are tolerant to environmental hypoxia. Under oxygen deprivation, shrimp tissues obtain energy by enhancing anaerobic glycolysis. In mammals, hypoxia increases the expression of the glycolytic enzyme glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate dehydrogenase (GAPDH), which has been shown a "moonlighting" role in cells. However, the effect of hypoxia on the GAPDH expression has not been studied in crustaceans. In the present work, we obtained a 2744 bp gene sequence with a 999 bp ORF split by a single intron. The deduced protein is 332 amino acids and corresponds to the L. vannamei GAPDH (LvGAPDH), which is highly similar in sequence and structure to other animal GAPDHs. During hypoxia, LvGAPDH expression is significantly induced in gills but not in hepatopancreas, suggesting that it may play a role in the molecular and cellular response of shrimp to hypoxia.

Cell cycle regulation and apoptosis mediated by p53 in response to hypoxia in hepatopancreas of the white shrimp Litopenaeus vannamei.

Although hypoxic aquatic environments cause negative effects on shrimp, these animals can withstand somewhat hypoxia, but the cellular mechanisms underlying this capacity are still poorly understood. In humans, mild hypoxia causes the induction of many proteins to allow cell survival. In contrast, apoptosis is induced during severe hypoxia leading to cell death. p53 is a key transcription factor that determines cells fate towards cell cycle arrest or induction of apoptosis in humans. The aim of this work was to study the role of p53 in cell cycle regulation and apoptosis in response to hypoxia in hepatopancreas of the white shrimp Litopenaeus vannamei. p53 was silenced by RNAi and afterwards the shrimp were exposed to hypoxia. Cdk-2 was used as indicator of cell cycle progression while caspase-3 expression and caspase activity were analyzed as indicators of apoptosis. p53 levels in hepatopancreas were significantly higher at 48 h after hypoxic treatment. Increased expression levels of Cdk-2 were found in p53-silenced shrimp after 24 and 48 h in the normoxic treatments as well as 48 h after hypoxia, indicating a possible role of p53 in cell cycle regulation. In response to hypoxia, unsilenced shrimp showed an increase in caspase-3 expression levels, however an increase was also observed in caspase activity at 24 h of normoxic conditions in p53-silenced shrimps. Taken together these results indicate the involvement of p53 in regulation of cell cycle and apoptosis in the white shrimp in response to hypoxia.

White shrimp Litopenaeus vannamei recombinant lactate dehydrogenase: Biochemical and kinetic characterization.

Shrimp lactate dehydrogenase (LDH) is induced in response to environmental hypoxia. Two protein subunits deduced from different transcripts of the LDH gene from the shrimp Litopenaeus vannamei (LDHvan-1 and LDHvan-2) were identified. These subunits are expressed by alternative splicing. Since both subunits are expressed in most tissues, the purification of the enzyme from the shrimp will likely produce hetero LDH containing both subunits. Therefore, the aim of this study was to overexpress, purify and characterize only one subunit as a recombinant protein, the LDHvan-2. For this, the cDNA from muscle was cloned and overexpressed in E. coli as a fusion protein containing an intein and a chitin binding protein domain (CBD). The recombinant protein was purified by chitin affinity chromatography column that retained the CBD and released solely the full and active LDH. The active protein appears to be a tetramer with molecular mass of approximately 140 kDa and can use pyruvate or lactate as substrates, but has higher specific activity with pyruvate. The enzyme is stable between pH 7.0 to 8.5, and between 20 and 50 °C with an optimal temperature of 50 °C. Two pKa of 9.3 and 6.6, and activation energy of 44.8 kJ/mol°K were found. The kinetic constants Km for NADH was 23.4 ± 1.8 µM, and for pyruvate was 203 ± 25 µM, while Vmax was 7.45 µmol/min/mg protein. The shrimp LDH that is mainly expressed in shrimp muscle preferentially converts pyruvate to lactate and is an important enzyme for the response to hypoxia.

Role of HIF-1 on phosphofructokinase and fructose 1, 6-bisphosphatase expression during hypoxia in the white shrimp Litopenaeus vannamei.

HIF-1 is a transcription factor that controls a widespread range of genes in metazoan organisms in response to hypoxia and is composed of α and ß subunits. In shrimp, phosphofructokinase (PFK) and fructose bisphosphatase (FBP) are up-regulated in hypoxia. We hypothesized that HIF-1 is involved in the regulation of PFK and FBP genes in shrimp hepatopancreas under hypoxia. Long double stranded RNA (dsRNA) intramuscular injection was utilized to silence simultaneously both HIF-1 subunits, and then, we measured the relative expression of PFK and FBP, as well as their corresponding enzymatic activities in hypoxic shrimp hepatopancreas. The results indicated that HIF-1 participates in the up-regulation of PFK transcripts under short-term hypoxia since the induction caused by hypoxia (~1.6 and ~4.2-fold after 3 and 48h, respectively) is significantly reduced in the dsRNA animals treated. Moreover, PFK activity was significantly ~2.8-fold augmented after 3h in hypoxia alongside to an ~1.9-fold increment in lactate. However, when animals were dsRNA treated, both were significantly reduced. On the other hand, FBP transcripts were ~5.3-fold up-regulated in long-term hypoxic conditions (48h). HIF-1 is involved in this process since FBP transcripts were not induced by hypoxia when HIF-1 was silenced. Conversely, the FBP activity was not affected by hypoxia, which suggests its possible regulation at post-translational level. Taken together, these results position HIF-1 as a prime transcription factor in coordinating glucose metabolism through the PFK and FBP genes among others, in shrimp under low oxygen environments.