Measuring climacteric symptoms and age at natural menopause in an Indian population using the Greene Climacteric Scale.

OBJECTIVE: The aim of the present study was to establish the age at onset of natural menopause and the prevalence of symptoms and identify any sociodemographic, physical, or other factors that may influence the onset of menopause among women in the Haridwar district of Uttarakhand, a state located in northern India. METHODS: Women in the age group of 30 to 65 years were interviewed using a questionnaire that has a four-point scale. Participants (N = 129) were divided into three categories: premenopause, early postmenopause (1-5 years after last menstrual cycle), and late postmenopause (>5 years after last menstrual cycle). The Greene Climacteric Scale was used to assess the frequency and severity of the climacteric symptoms. RESULTS: Recalled mean +/- SD age at menopause was 45.02 +/- 4.35 years, and age at menopause computed by probit analysis was 46.82 years. An increase in the percentage of occurrence and severity of symptoms with transition to menopause was observed. The most prevalent symptom was muscle and joint pains (55.81%), followed by feeling tired or lack of energy (51.19%), eye problems (49.61%), headache (43.41%), and feeling unhappy or depressed (36.43%). Women who belonged to middle class families had a late onset of menopause (45.47 years) compared with women of poor socioeconomic status (42.13 years) (P < 0.05). Women who had active or hectic lifestyles achieved menopause at an earlier age in comparison with women with a sedentary lifestyle. CONCLUSIONS: This is the first attempt to report the data on menopause from Uttarakhand, a state located in northern India. Computed age at the onset of menopause varied by approximately 2 years with different methodologies used. Socioeconomic status and lifestyles significantly affect the age at the onset of menopause. Most of the women rated menopause as a positive change in life.

Biofilm formation by Candida albicans isolated from intrauterine devices.

Our survey revealed that infected intrauterine devices (IUDs) recovered from patients suffering from reproductive tract infections (RTIs) were tainted with Candida biofilm composed of a single or multiple species. Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) analysis of C. albicans biofilm topography showed that it consists of a dense network of mono- or multilayer of cells embedded within the matrix of extracellular polymeric substances (EPS). Confocal scanning laser microscopy (CSLM) and atomic force microscopy (AFM) images depicted that C. albicans biofilms have a highly heterogeneous architecture composed of cellular and noncellular elements with EPS distributed in the cell-surface periphery or at cell-cell interface. Biochemical analysis showed that EPS produced by C. albicans biofilm contained significantly reduced total carbohydrate (40%), protein (5%) and enhanced amount of hexosamine (4%) in contrast to its planktonic counterparts. The in vitro activity of antifungal agents amphotericin B, nystatin, fluconazole and chlorhexidine against pre-formed C. albicans biofilm, assessed using XTT (2,3-bis[2-methoxy-4-nitro-5-sulfophenyl]-2H-tetrazolium-5-carboxanilide) reduction assay revealed increased resistance of these infectious biofilm (50% reduction in metabolic activity at a concentration of 8, 16, 64, 128 µg/ml respectively) in comparison to its planktonic form.

Identification of antimicrobial activity from goat cervical epithelium.

1. In mammals, antimicrobial peptides are present in epithelial cells of the respiratory, gastrointestinal and urinogenital tracts. In the present study, we report the identification and partial characterization of an antimicrobial peptide in extracts prepared from goat cervical epithelial tissue. 2. The bioactivity, as determined by radial and disc diffusion assays, was identified in a peptide of molecular mass 4.5 kDa purified by cation exchange and gel filtration techniques. The purified peptide exhibited antibacterial activity against Escherichia coli (Gram-negative) as well as Bacillus subtilis (Gram-positive) bacteria. 3. The minimum inhibitory concentration of the peptide estimated by liquid broth assay for E. coli and B. subtilis suspensions was 31 and 50 microg/mL, respectively, a result implying that the peptide is more efficient in inhibiting Gram-negative than Gram-positive bacteria. 4. Because the peptide has no spermicidal activity, we propose that it is responsible for protecting the female genital tract against bacteria. 5. Whether the peptide has potentials for use in the cryopreservation, storage and transport of semen remains to be determined.

A treatise on hazards of endocrine disruptors and tool to evaluate them.

Hormones mediate a major part of our essential physiological functions. Both endogenous and exogenous compounds and their metabolites are known to act through hormone receptors leading to regulation of endocrine function. The endogenous ligands that control reproductive functions are generally steroids such as 17beta-estradiol, androgens, progesterone, pregnenolone and glucocorticoids. However, exogenous compounds that are structurally and functionally similar gain entry into animals including humans through the diet or by occupational exposures, causing endocrine disruption. In the recent decade, there is a lot of apprehension about the so-called "endocrine disruptors" which are wide spread in the environment, mainly due to unrestricted human activity. These compounds of anthropogenic or natural origin mimic the action of sex hormones and can interfere with the endocrine system. It has been hypothesized that environmental exposure to synthetic estrogenic chemicals and related endocrine active compounds may be responsible for malformations in the male reproductive tract, crytorchidism, hypospadias, decrease in sperm counts, decreased male reproductive capacity and even testicular cancers. The increasing concern in both public and scientific communities about these abnormalities have prompted the initiation of epidemiological studies to not only identify, but to also analyze the short and long term effects of endocrine disruptors. As a result, a number of assays have been developed and are undergoing validation aimed at high throughput screening of chemical agents that disrupt endocrine activity. This review consolidates the findings of epidemiological studies, particularly in relation to male reproductive disorders and brings to light the various types of in vitro and in vivo models that are available for tiered testing of suspected compounds.

Phospholipase C from two bacterial strains acts differently on pure phospholipids and membrane bound glycosylphosphatidylinositol (GPI) anchors.

Phospholipase C (PLC) was purified to homogeneity from the culture filtrate of Bacillus cereus (65-fold, 540 U/mg protein) and B. thuringiensis (76-fold, 306 U/mg protein) by conventional techniques of enzyme purification. The purified enzymes have the molecular mass of 34 kDa and 38 kDa respectively, as determined by SDS-PAGE. Both the PLCs exhibited identical sensitivity to pH, temperature, cations, anions and inhibitors like glutathione and p-chloromercuribenzoate. PLC-Bc showed a preference for phosphatidylinositol, while PLC-Bt favoured phosphatidylcholine as the substrate. Although both the enzymes were able to hydrolyze pure phosphatidylinositol, distinct differences were observed in their activity on phosphatidylinositol-anchored membrane proteins. PLC-Bc cleaved and released alkaline phosphatase, a GPI-anchored marker enzyme from microsomal membranes to a greater extent, than PLC-Bt. Experiments with sperm membranes, followed by SDS-PAGE revealed that the pattern of proteins released from their GPI-anchors by PLC-Bc and PLC-Bt were dissimilar. Although some proteins were cleaved in common by both PLCs, some others including a prominent 57 kDa protein were resistant to PLC-Bt, but sensitive to cleavage by PLC-Bc. The type of modification in the GPI anchor, special environment on membranes, and relative charge of host plasma membrane to the charge of PLC may be the factors that are responsible for the differential action of two enzymes.

Reproduction in male rats is vulnerable to treatment with the flavonoid-rich seed extracts of Vitex negundo.

A partially purified flavonoid-rich extract was prepared from the seed of Vitex negundo. The effect of this extract on the reproductive system of male rats was investigated at four different concentrations. All the major accessory sex organs shed weight when the preparation was administered at doses of >or=15 mg/rat/day after 15 days of treatment. The drop in weight was also reflected in disturbed tissue biochemistry. Secretory products such as citric acid in the prostate, fructose in seminal vesicles and epididymal alpha-glucosidase activity, indices of accessory sex organ function in males, diminished. Microscopic examination of the sperm derived from the cauda epididymides of treated animals showed only a marginal change in vitality. However, sperm numbers dwindled and slackness in their motility was observed, factors that may impede fertility. Toxicity testing in blood did not point to distress in any of the vital organs. Taken together, it is inferred that the seed extracts of V. negundo interfere with male reproductive function without producing adverse toxicity in other vital organs.

Toxic effects of pulp and paper-mill effluents on male reproductive organs and some systemic parameters in rats.

The effect of pulp and paper-mill effluents on terrestrial animals was investigated using male albino rats as a test organism, under controlled laboratory conditions. Effluent consumption for 15 days caused a reduction in the relative weight of the testis (mg/100g body weight), compared to the control rats. The effects were not so pronounced in other regions of the male reproductive tract. Biochemical analysis revealed a drop in the activity of epididymal α-glucosidase in the effluent-treated animals. Although sperm collected from the cauda epididymis appeared morphologically normal, a decline in total sperm count and number of motile sperm was seen. The circulating level of testosterone in effluent-treated rats was slightly lower in some groups of rats given effluent treatment compared to controls. The level of progesterone and oestradiol, however, remained unaffected. Hematological and serological analyses suggest that effluents could produce anemia, liver and kidney dysfunction in rats. This inference stems from the altered blood cell counts, enhanced bilirubin and urea concentration in blood and high activity of serum GOT and GPT observed in effluent fed animals compared to controls. It is concluded that besides the general toxicity, the effluent affects the male reproductive system predominantly at the level of the testis.