A Role for Basigin in Toxoplasma gondii Infection.

The role of specific host cell surface receptors during Toxoplasma gondii invasion of host cells is poorly defined. Here, we interrogated the role of the well-known malarial invasion receptor, basigin, in T. gondii infection of astrocytes. We found that primary astrocytes express two members of the BASIGIN (BSG) immunoglobulin family, basigin and embigin, but did not express neuroplastin. Antibody blockade of either basigin or embigin caused a significant reduction of parasite infectivity in astrocytes. The specific role of basigin during T. gondii invasion was further examined using a mouse astrocytic cell line (C8-D30), which exclusively expresses basigin. CRISPR-mediated deletion of basigin in C8-D30 cells resulted in decreased T. gondii infectivity. T. gondii replication and invasion efficiency were not altered by basigin deficiency, but parasite attachment to astrocytes was markedly reduced. We also conducted a proteomic screen to identify T. gondii proteins that interact with basigin. Toxoplasma-encoded cyclophilins, the protein 14-3-3, and protein disulfide isomerase (TgPDI) were among the putative basigin-ligands identified. Recombinant TgPDI produced in E. coli bound to basigin and pretreatment of tachyzoites with a PDI inhibitor decreased parasite attachment to host cells. Finally, mutagenesis of the active site cysteines of TgPDI abolished enzyme binding to basigin. Thus, basigin and its related immunoglobulin family members may represent host receptors that mediate attachment of T. gondii to diverse cell types.

Structural basis of lipopolysaccharide maturation by the O-antigen ligase.

The outer membrane of Gram-negative bacteria has an external leaflet that is largely composed of lipopolysaccharide, which provides a selective permeation barrier, particularly against antimicrobials1. The final and crucial step in the biosynthesis of lipopolysaccharide is the addition of a species-dependent O-antigen to the lipid A core oligosaccharide, which is catalysed by the O-antigen ligase WaaL2. Here we present structures of WaaL from Cupriavidus metallidurans, both in the apo state and in complex with its lipid carrier undecaprenyl pyrophosphate, determined by single-particle cryo-electron microscopy. The structures reveal that WaaL comprises 12 transmembrane helices and a predominantly α-helical periplasmic region, which we show contains many of the conserved residues that are required for catalysis. We observe a conserved fold within the GT-C family of glycosyltransferases and hypothesize that they have a common mechanism for shuttling the undecaprenyl-based carrier to and from the active site. The structures, combined with genetic, biochemical, bioinformatics and molecular dynamics simulation experiments, offer molecular details on how the ligands come in apposition, and allows us to propose a mechanistic model for catalysis. Together, our work provides a structural basis for lipopolysaccharide maturation in a member of the GT-C superfamily of glycosyltransferases.

Structure-function studies of Rgg binding to pheromones and target promoters reveal a model of transcription factor interplay.

Regulator gene of glucosyltransferase (Rgg) family proteins, such as Rgg2 and Rgg3, have emerged as primary quorum-sensing regulated transcription factors in Streptococcus species, controlling virulence, antimicrobial resistance, and biofilm formation. Rgg2 and Rgg3 function is regulated by their interaction with oligopeptide quorum-sensing signals called short hydrophobic peptides (SHPs). The molecular basis of Rgg-SHP and Rgg-target DNA promoter specificity was unknown. To close this gap, we determined the cryoelectron microscopy (cryo-EM) structure of Streptococcus thermophilus Rgg3 bound to its quorum-sensing signal, SHP3, and the X-ray crystal structure of Rgg3 alone. Comparison of these structures with that of an Rgg in complex with cyclosporin A (CsA), an inhibitor of SHP-induced Rgg activity, reveals the molecular basis of CsA function. Furthermore, to determine how Rgg proteins recognize DNA promoters, we determined X-ray crystal structures of both Streptococcus dysgalactiae Rgg2 and S. thermophilus Rgg3 in complex with their target DNA promoters. The physiological importance of observed Rgg-DNA interactions was dissected using in vivo genetic experiments and in vitro biochemical assays. Based on these structure-function studies, we present a revised unifying model of Rgg regulatory interplay. In contrast to existing models, where Rgg2 proteins are transcriptional activators and Rgg3 proteins are transcriptional repressors, we propose that both are capable of transcriptional activation. However, when Rgg proteins with different activation requirements compete for the same DNA promoters, those with more stringent activation requirements function as repressors by blocking promoter access of SHP-bound conformationally active Rgg proteins. While a similar gene expression regulatory scenario has not been previously described, in all likelihood it is not unique to streptococci.

Structural and Functional Characterization of Phosphatidylinositol-Phosphate Biosynthesis in Mycobacteria.

In mycobacteria, phosphatidylinositol (PI) acts as a common lipid anchor for key components of the cell wall, including the glycolipids phosphatidylinositol mannoside, lipomannan, and lipoarabinomannan. Glycolipids in Mycobacterium tuberculosis, the causative agent of tuberculosis, are important virulence factors that modulate the host immune response. The identity-defining step in PI biosynthesis in prokaryotes, unique to mycobacteria and few other bacterial species, is the reaction between cytidine diphosphate-diacylglycerol and inositol-phosphate to yield phosphatidylinositol-phosphate, the immediate precursor to PI. This reaction is catalyzed by the cytidine diphosphate-alcohol phosphotransferase phosphatidylinositol-phosphate synthase (PIPS), an essential enzyme for mycobacterial viability. Here we present structures of PIPS from Mycobacterium kansasii with and without evidence of donor and acceptor substrate binding obtained using a crystal engineering approach. PIPS from Mycobacterium kansasii is 86% identical to the ortholog from M. tuberculosis and catalytically active. Functional experiments guided by our structural results allowed us to further characterize the molecular determinants of substrate specificity and catalysis in a new mycobacterial species. This work provides a framework to strengthen our understanding of phosphatidylinositol-phosphate biosynthesis in the context of mycobacterial pathogens.

Structural basis for catalysis at the membrane-water interface.

The membrane-water interface forms a uniquely heterogeneous and geometrically constrained environment for enzymatic catalysis. Integral membrane enzymes sample three environments - the uniformly hydrophobic interior of the membrane, the aqueous extramembrane region, and the fuzzy, amphipathic interfacial region formed by the tightly packed headgroups of the components of the lipid bilayer. Depending on the nature of the substrates and the location of the site of chemical modification, catalysis may occur in each of these environments. The availability of structural information for alpha-helical enzyme families from each of these classes, as well as several beta-barrel enzymes from the bacterial outer membrane, has allowed us to review here the different ways in which each enzyme fold has adapted to the nature of the substrates, products, and the unique environment of the membrane. Our focus here is on enzymes that process lipidic substrates. This article is part of a Special Issue entitled: Bacterial Lipids edited by Russell E. Bishop.

Structures of aminoarabinose transferase ArnT suggest a molecular basis for lipid A glycosylation.

Polymyxins are antibiotics used in the last line of defense to combat multidrug-resistant infections by Gram-negative bacteria. Polymyxin resistance arises through charge modification of the bacterial outer membrane with the attachment of the cationic sugar 4-amino-4-deoxy-l-arabinose to lipid A, a reaction catalyzed by the integral membrane lipid-to-lipid glycosyltransferase 4-amino-4-deoxy-L-arabinose transferase (ArnT). Here, we report crystal structures of ArnT from Cupriavidus metallidurans, alone and in complex with the lipid carrier undecaprenyl phosphate, at 2.8 and 3.2 angstrom resolution, respectively. The structures show cavities for both lipidic substrates, which converge at the active site. A structural rearrangement occurs on undecaprenyl phosphate binding, which stabilizes the active site and likely allows lipid A binding. Functional mutagenesis experiments based on these structures suggest a mechanistic model for ArnT family enzymes.

Phosphoinositide control of membrane protein function: a frontier led by studies on ion channels.

Anionic phospholipids are critical constituents of the inner leaflet of the plasma membrane, ensuring appropriate membrane topology of transmembrane proteins. Additionally, in eukaryotes, the negatively charged phosphoinositides serve as key signals not only through their hydrolysis products but also through direct control of transmembrane protein function. Direct phosphoinositide control of the activity of ion channels and transporters has been the most convincing case of the critical importance of phospholipid-protein interactions in the functional control of membrane proteins. Furthermore, second messengers, such as [Ca(2+)]i, or posttranslational modifications, such as phosphorylation, can directly or allosterically fine-tune phospholipid-protein interactions and modulate activity. Recent advances in structure determination of membrane proteins have allowed investigators to obtain complexes of ion channels with phosphoinositides and to use computational and experimental approaches to probe the dynamic mechanisms by which lipid-protein interactions control active and inactive protein states.

Distant cytosolic residues mediate a two-way molecular switch that controls the modulation of inwardly rectifying potassium (Kir) channels by cholesterol and phosphatidylinositol 4,5-bisphosphate (PI(4,5)P(2)).

BACKGROUND: Cholesterol modulates inwardly rectifying potassium (Kir) channels. RESULTS: A two-way molecular cytosolic switch controls channel modulation by cholesterol and PI(4,5)P(2). CONCLUSION: Cholesterol and PI(4,5)P(2) induce a common gating pathway of Kir2.1 despite their opposite impact on channel function. SIGNIFICANCE: These findings provide insights into structure-function relationship of ion channels and contribute to understanding of the mechanisms underlying their regulation by lipids. Inwardly rectifying potassium (Kir) channels play an important role in setting the resting membrane potential and modulating membrane excitability. An emerging feature of several Kir channels is that they are regulated by cholesterol. However, the mechanism by which cholesterol affects channel function is unclear. Here we show that mutations of two distant Kir2.1 cytosolic residues, Leu-222 and Asn-251, form a two-way molecular switch that controls channel modulation by cholesterol and affects critical hydrogen bonding. Notably, these two residues are linked by a residue chain that continues from Asn-251 to connect adjacent subunits. Furthermore, our data indicate that the same switch also regulates the sensitivity of the channels to phosphatidylinositol 4,5-bisphosphate, a phosphoinositide that is required for activation of Kir channels. Thus, although cholesterol and phosphatidylinositol 4,5-bisphosphate do not interact with the same region of Kir2.1, these different modulators induce a common gating pathway of the channel.

Channelopathies linked to plasma membrane phosphoinositides.

The plasma membrane phosphoinositide phosphatidylinositol 4,5-bisphosphate (PIP2) controls the activity of most ion channels tested thus far through direct electrostatic interactions. Mutations in channel proteins that change their apparent affinity to PIP2 can lead to channelopathies. Given the fundamental role that membrane phosphoinositides play in regulating channel activity, it is surprising that only a small number of channelopathies have been linked to phosphoinositides. This review proposes that for channels whose activity is PIP2-dependent and for which mutations can lead to channelopathies, the possibility that the mutations alter channel-PIP2 interactions ought to be tested. Similarly, diseases that are linked to disorders of the phosphoinositide pathway result in altered PIP2 levels. In such cases, it is proposed that the possibility for a concomitant dysregulation of channel activity also ought to be tested. The ever-growing list of ion channels whose activity depends on interactions with PIP2 promises to provide a mechanism by which defects on either the channel protein or the phosphoinositide levels can lead to disease.

Phosphatidylinositol-4,5-bisphosphate regulates NMDA receptor activity through alpha-actinin.

Phosphatidylinositol-4,5-bisphosphate (PIP2) has been shown to regulate many ion channels, transporters, and other signaling proteins, but it is not known whether it also regulates neurotransmitter-gated channels. The NMDA receptors (NMDARs) are gated by glutamate and serve as a critical control point in synaptic function. Here we demonstrate that PIP2 supports NMDAR activity. In Xenopus oocytes, overexpression of phospholipase Cgamma (PLCgamma) or preincubation with 10 microm wortmannin markedly reduced NMDA currents. Stimulation of the epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR) promoted the formation of an immunocomplex between PLCgamma and NMDAR subunits. Stimulation of EGFR or the PLCbeta-coupled M1 acetylcholine receptor produced a robust transient inhibition of NMDA currents. Wortmannin application blocked the recovery of NMDA currents from the inhibition. Using mutagenesis, we identified the structural elements on NMDAR intracellular tails that transduce the receptor-mediated inhibition, which pinpoint to the binding site for the cytoskeletal protein alpha-actinin. Mutation of the PIP2-binding residues of alpha-actinin dramatically reduced NMDA currents and occluded the effect of EGF. Interestingly, EGF or wortmannin affected the interaction between NMDAR subunits and alpha-actinin, suggesting that this protein mediates the effect of PIP2 on NMDARs. In mature hippocampal neurons, expression of the mutant alpha-actinin reduced NMDA currents and accelerated inactivation. We propose a model in which alpha-actinin supports NMDAR activity via tethering their intracellular tails to plasma membrane PIP2. Thus, our results extend the influence of PIP2 to the NMDA ionotropic glutamate receptors and introduce a novel mechanism of "indirect" regulation of transmembrane protein activity by PIP2.