Mechanism of how the universal module XMAP215 γ-TuRC nucleates microtubules.

It has become increasingly evident in recent years that nucleation of microtubules from a diverse set of MTOCs requires both the γ-tubulin ring complex (γ-TuRC) and the microtubule polymerase XMAP215. Despite their essentiality, little is known about how these nucleation factors interact and work together to generate microtubules. Using biochemical domain analysis of XMAP215 and structural approaches, we find that a sixth TOG domain in XMAP215 binds γ-TuRC via γ-tubulin as part of a broader interaction involving the C-terminal region. Moreover, TOG6 is required for XMAP215 to promote nucleation from γ-TuRC to its full extent. Interestingly, we find that XMAP215 also depends strongly on TOG5 for microtubule lattice binding and nucleation. Accordingly, we report a cryo-EM structure of TOG5 bound to the microtubule lattice that reveals promotion of lateral interactions between tubulin dimers. Finally, we find that while XMAP215 constructs' effects on nucleation are generally proportional to their effects on polymerization, formation of a direct complex with γ-TuRC allows cooperative nucleation activity. Thus, we propose that XMAP215's C-terminal TOGs 5 and 6 play key roles in promoting nucleation by promoting formation of longitudinal and lateral bonds in γ-TuRC templated nascent microtubules at cellular MTOCs.

Building on-chip cytoskeletal circuits via branched microtubule networks.

Controllable platforms to engineer robust cytoskeletal scaffolds have the potential to create novel on-chip nanotechnologies. Inspired by axons, we combined the branching microtubule (MT) nucleation pathway with microfabrication to develop "cytoskeletal circuits." This active matter platform allows control over the adaptive self-organization of uniformly polarized MT arrays via geometric features of microstructures designed within a microfluidic confinement. We build and characterize basic elements, including turns and divisions, as well as complex regulatory elements, such as biased division and MT diodes, to construct various MT architectures on a chip. Our platform could be used in diverse applications, ranging from efficient on-chip molecular transport to mechanical nano-actuators. Further, cytoskeletal circuits can serve as a tool to study how the physical environment contributes to MT architecture in living cells.

Microtubule nucleation for spindle assembly: one molecule at a time.

The cell orchestrates the dance of chromosome segregation with remarkable speed and fidelity. The mitotic spindle is built from scratch after interphase through microtubule (MT) nucleation, which is dependent on the γ-tubulin ring complex (γ-TuRC), the universal MT template. Although several MT nucleation pathways build the spindle framework, the question of when and how γ-TuRC is targeted to these nucleation sites in the spindle and subsequently activated remains an active area of investigation. Recent advances facilitated the discovery of new MT nucleation effectors and their mechanisms of action. In this review, we illuminate each spindle assembly pathway and subsequently consider how the pathways are merged to build a spindle.

Acentrosomal spindles assemble from branching microtubule nucleation near chromosomes in Xenopus laevis egg extract.

Microtubules are generated at centrosomes, chromosomes, and within spindles during cell division. Whereas microtubule nucleation at the centrosome is well characterized, much remains unknown about where, when, and how microtubules are nucleated at chromosomes. To address these questions, we reconstitute microtubule nucleation from purified chromosomes in meiotic Xenopus egg extract and find that chromosomes alone can form spindles. We visualize microtubule nucleation near chromosomes using total internal reflection fluorescence microscopy to find that this occurs through branching microtubule nucleation. By inhibiting molecular motors, we find that the organization of the resultant polar branched networks is consistent with a theoretical model where the effectors for branching nucleation are released by chromosomes, forming a concentration gradient that spatially biases branching microtbule nucleation. In the presence of motors, these branched networks are ultimately organized into functional spindles, where the number of emergent spindle poles scales with the number of chromosomes and total chromatin area.

Structural basis of protein condensation on microtubules underlying branching microtubule nucleation.

Targeting protein for Xklp2 (TPX2) is a key factor that stimulates branching microtubule nucleation during cell division. Upon binding to microtubules (MTs), TPX2 forms condensates via liquid-liquid phase separation, which facilitates recruitment of microtubule nucleation factors and tubulin. We report the structure of the TPX2 C-terminal minimal active domain (TPX2α5-α7) on the microtubule lattice determined by magic-angle-spinning NMR. We demonstrate that TPX2α5-α7 forms a co-condensate with soluble tubulin on microtubules and binds to MTs between two adjacent protofilaments and at the intersection of four tubulin heterodimers. These interactions stabilize the microtubules and promote the recruitment of tubulin. Our results reveal that TPX2α5-α7 is disordered in solution and adopts a folded structure on MTs, indicating that TPX2α5-α7 undergoes structural changes from unfolded to folded states upon binding to microtubules. The aromatic residues form dense interactions in the core, which stabilize folding of TPX2α5-α7 on microtubules. This work informs on how the phase-separated TPX2α5-α7 behaves on microtubules and represents an atomic-level structural characterization of a protein that is involved in a condensate on cytoskeletal filaments.

Augmin is a Ran-regulated spindle assembly factor.

Mitotic spindles are composed of microtubules (MTs) that must nucleate at the right place and time. Ran regulates this process by directly controlling the release of spindle assembly factors (SAFs) from nucleocytoplasmic shuttle proteins importin-αß and subsequently forms a biochemical gradient of SAFs localized around chromosomes. The majority of spindle MTs are generated by branching MT nucleation, which has been shown to require an eight-subunit protein complex known as augmin. In Xenopus laevis, Ran can control branching through a canonical SAF, TPX2, which is nonessential in Drosophila melanogaster embryos and HeLa cells. Thus, how Ran regulates branching MT nucleation when TPX2 is not required remains unknown. Here, we use in vitro pulldowns and total internal reflection fluorescence microscopy to show that augmin is a Ran-regulated SAF. We demonstrate that augmin directly interacts with both importin-α and importin-ß through two nuclear localization sequences on the Haus8 subunit, which overlap with the MT-binding site. Moreover, we show that Ran controls localization of augmin to MTs in both Xenopus egg extract and in vitro. Our results demonstrate that RanGTP directly regulates augmin, which establishes a new way by which Ran controls branching MT nucleation and spindle assembly both in the absence and presence of TPX2.

Integrated model of the vertebrate augmin complex.

Accurate segregation of chromosomes is required to maintain genome integrity during cell division. This feat is accomplished by the microtubule-based spindle. To build a spindle rapidly and with high fidelity, cells take advantage of branching microtubule nucleation, which rapidly amplifies microtubules during cell division. Branching microtubule nucleation relies on the hetero-octameric augmin complex, but lack of structure information about augmin has hindered understanding how it promotes branching. In this work, we combine cryo-electron microscopy, protein structural prediction, and visualization of fused bulky tags via negative stain electron microscopy to identify the location and orientation of each subunit within the augmin structure. Evolutionary analysis shows that augmin's structure is highly conserved across eukaryotes, and that augmin contains a previously unidentified microtubule binding site. Thus, our findings provide insight into the mechanism of branching microtubule nucleation.

Mechanisms underlying spindle assembly and robustness.

The microtubule-based spindle orchestrates chromosome segregation during cell division. Following more than a century of study, many components and pathways contributing to spindle assembly have been described, but how the spindle robustly assembles remains incompletely understood. This process involves the self-organization of a large number of molecular parts - up to hundreds of thousands in vertebrate cells - whose local interactions give rise to a cellular-scale structure with emergent architecture, mechanics and function. In this Review, we discuss key concepts in our understanding of spindle assembly, focusing on recent advances and the new approaches that enabled them. We describe the pathways that generate the microtubule framework of the spindle by driving microtubule nucleation in a spatially controlled fashion and present recent insights regarding the organization of individual microtubules into structural modules. Finally, we discuss the emergent properties of the spindle that enable robust chromosome segregation.

Electronic Energy Migration in Microtubules.

The repeating arrangement of tubulin dimers confers great mechanical strength to microtubules, which are used as scaffolds for intracellular macromolecular transport in cells and exploited in biohybrid devices. The crystalline order in a microtubule, with lattice constants short enough to allow energy transfer between amino acid chromophores, is similar to synthetic structures designed for light harvesting. After photoexcitation, can these amino acid chromophores transfer excitation energy along the microtubule like a natural or artificial light-harvesting system? Here, we use tryptophan autofluorescence lifetimes to probe energy hopping between aromatic residues in tubulin and microtubules. By studying how the quencher concentration alters tryptophan autofluorescence lifetimes, we demonstrate that electronic energy can diffuse over 6.6 nm in microtubules. We discover that while diffusion lengths are influenced by tubulin polymerization state (free tubulin versus tubulin in the microtubule lattice), they are not significantly altered by the average number of protofilaments (13 versus 14). We also demonstrate that the presence of the anesthetics etomidate and isoflurane reduce exciton diffusion. Energy transport as explained by conventional Förster theory (accommodating for interactions between tryptophan and tyrosine residues) does not sufficiently explain our observations. Our studies indicate that microtubules are, unexpectedly, effective light harvesters.

HURP facilitates spindle assembly by stabilizing microtubules and working synergistically with TPX2.

In large vertebrate spindles, the majority of microtubules are formed via branching microtubule nucleation, whereby microtubules nucleate along the side of pre-existing microtubules. Hepatoma up-regulated protein (HURP) is a microtubule-associated protein that has been implicated in spindle assembly, but its mode of action is yet to be defined. In this study, we show that HURP is necessary for RanGTP-induced branching microtubule nucleation in Xenopus egg extract. Specifically, HURP stabilizes the microtubule lattice to promote microtubule formation from γ-TuRC. This function is shifted to promote branching microtubule nucleation in the presence of TPX2, another branching-promoting factor, as HURP's localization to microtubules is enhanced by TPX2 condensation. Lastly, we provide a structure of HURP on the microtubule lattice, revealing how HURP binding stabilizes the microtubule lattice. We propose a model in which HURP stabilizes microtubules during their formation, and TPX2 preferentially enriches HURP to microtubules to promote branching microtubule nucleation and thus spindle assembly.

Conformational states of the microtubule nucleator, the γ-tubulin ring complex.

Microtubules (MTs) perform essential functions in the cell, and it is critical that they are made at the correct cellular location and cell cycle stage. This nucleation process is catalyzed by the γ-tubulin ring complex (γ-TuRC), a cone-shaped protein complex composed of over 30 subunits. Despite recent insight into the structure of vertebrate γ-TuRC, which shows that its diameter is wider than that of a MT, and that it exhibits little of the symmetry expected for an ideal MT template, the question of how γ-TuRC achieves MT nucleation remains open. Here, we utilized single particle cryo-EM to identify two conformations of γ-TuRC. The helix composed of 14 γ-tubulins at the top of the γ-TuRC cone undergoes substantial deformation, which is predominantly driven by bending of the hinge between the GRIP1 and GRIP2 domains of the γ-tubulin complex proteins. However, surprisingly, this deformation does not remove the inherent asymmetry of γ-TuRC. To further investigate the role of γ-TuRC conformational change, we used cryo electron-tomography (cryo-ET) to obtain a 3D reconstruction of γ-TuRC bound to a nucleated MT, providing insight into the post-nucleation state. Rigid-body fitting of our cryo-EM structures into this reconstruction suggests that the MT lattice is nucleated by spokes 2 through 14 of the γ-tubulin helix, which entails spokes 13 and 14 becoming more structured than what is observed in apo γ-TuRC. Together, our results allow us to propose a model for conformational changes in γ-TuRC and how these may facilitate MT formation in a cell.

The conserved centrosomin motif, γTuNA, forms a dimer that directly activates microtubule nucleation by the γ-tubulin ring complex (γTuRC).

To establish the microtubule cytoskeleton, the cell must tightly regulate when and where microtubules are nucleated. This regulation involves controlling the initial nucleation template, the γ-tubulin ring complex (γTuRC). Although γTuRC is present throughout the cytoplasm, its activity is restricted to specific sites including the centrosome and Golgi. The well-conserved γ-tubulin nucleation activator (γTuNA) domain has been reported to increase the number of microtubules (MTs) generated by γTuRCs. However, previously we and others observed that γTuNA had a minimal effect on the activity of antibody-purified Xenopus γTuRCs in vitro (Thawani et al., eLife, 2020; Liu et al., 2020). Here, we instead report, based on improved versions of γTuRC, γTuNA, and our TIRF assay, the first real-time observation that γTuNA directly increases γTuRC activity in vitro, which is thus a bona fide γTuRC activator. We further validate this effect in Xenopus egg extract. Via mutation analysis, we find that γTuNA is an obligate dimer. Moreover, efficient dimerization as well as γTuNA's L70, F75, and L77 residues are required for binding to and activation of γTuRC. Finally, we find that γTuNA's activating effect opposes inhibitory regulation by stathmin. In sum, our improved assays prove that direct γTuNA binding strongly activates γTuRCs, explaining previously observed effects of γTuNA expression in cells and illuminating how γTuRC-mediated microtubule nucleation is regulated.

Capillary forces generated by biomolecular condensates.

Liquid-liquid phase separation and related phase transitions have emerged as generic mechanisms in living cells for the formation of membraneless compartments or biomolecular condensates. The surface between two immiscible phases has an interfacial tension, generating capillary forces that can perform work on the surrounding environment. Here we present the physical principles of capillarity, including examples of how capillary forces structure multiphase condensates and remodel biological substrates. As with other mechanisms of intracellular force generation, for example, molecular motors, capillary forces can influence biological processes. Identifying the biomolecular determinants of condensate capillarity represents an exciting frontier, bridging soft matter physics and cell biology.

How Microtubules Build the Spindle Branch by Branch.

The microtubule (MT) cytoskeleton provides the architecture that governs intracellular organization and the regulated motion of macromolecules through the crowded cytoplasm. The key to establishing a functioning cytoskeletal architecture is regulating when and where new MTs are nucleated. Within the spindle, the vast majority of MTs are generated through a pathway known as branching MT nucleation, which exponentially amplifies MT number in a polar manner. Whereas other MT nucleation pathways generally require a complex organelle such as the centrosome or Golgi apparatus to localize nucleation factors, the branching site is based solely on a simple, preformed MT, making it an ideal system to study MT nucleation. In this review, we address recent developments in characterizing branching factors, the branching reaction, and its regulation, as well as branching MT nucleation in systems beyond the spindle and within human disease.

Molecular insight into how γ-TuRC makes microtubules.

As one of four filament types, microtubules are a core component of the cytoskeleton and are essential for cell function. Yet how microtubules are nucleated from their building blocks, the αß-tubulin heterodimer, has remained a fundamental open question since the discovery of tubulin 50 years ago. Recent structural studies have shed light on how γ-tubulin and the γ-tubulin complex proteins (GCPs) GCP2 to GCP6 form the γ-tubulin ring complex (γ-TuRC). In parallel, functional and single-molecule studies have informed on how the γ-TuRC nucleates microtubules in real time, how this process is regulated in the cell and how it compares to other modes of nucleation. Another recent surprise has been the identification of a second essential nucleation factor, which turns out to be the well-characterized microtubule polymerase XMAP215 (also known as CKAP5, a homolog of chTOG, Stu2 and Alp14). This discovery helps to explain why the observed nucleation activity of the γ-TuRC in vitro is relatively low. Taken together, research in recent years has afforded important insight into how microtubules are made in the cell and provides a basis for an exciting era in the cytoskeleton field.

Interaction of spindle assembly factor TPX2 with importins-α/ß inhibits protein phase separation.

The microtubule-based mitotic spindle is responsible for equally partitioning the genome during each cell division, and its assembly is executed via several microtubule nucleation pathways. Targeting Protein for XKlp2 (TPX2) stimulates the branching microtubule nucleation pathway, where new microtubules are nucleated from preexisting ones within mitotic or meiotic spindles. TPX2, like other spindle assembly factors, is sequestered by binding to nuclear importins-α/ß until the onset of mitosis, yet the molecular nature of this regulation remains unclear. Here we demonstrate that TPX2 interacts with importins-α/ß with nanomolar affinity in a 1:1:1 monodispersed trimer. We also identify a new nuclear localization sequence in TPX2 that contributes to its high-affinity interaction with importin-α. In addition, we establish that TPX2 interacts with importin-ß via dispersed, weak interactions. We show that interactions of both importin-α and -ß with TPX2 inhibit its ability to undergo phase separation, which was recently shown to enhance the kinetics of branching microtubule nucleation. In summary, our study informs how importins regulate TPX2 to facilitate spindle assembly, and provides novel insight into the functional regulation of protein phase separation.

Confinement size determines the architecture of Ran-induced microtubule networks.

The organization of microtubules (MTs) is critical for cells during interphase and mitosis. During mitotic spindle assembly, MTs are made and organized around chromosomes in a process regulated by RanGTP. The role of RanGTP has been explored in Xenopus egg extracts, which are not limited by a cell membrane. Here, we investigated whether cell-sized confinements affect the assembly of RanGTP-induced MT networks in Xenopus egg extracts. We used microfluidics to encapsulate extracts within monodisperse extract-in-oil droplets. Importantly, we find that the architecture of Ran-induced MT networks depends on the droplet diameter and the Ran concentration, and differs from structures formed in bulk extracts. Our results highlight that both MT nucleation and physical confinement play critical roles in determining the spatial organization of the MT cytoskeleton.

The transition state and regulation of γ-TuRC-mediated microtubule nucleation revealed by single molecule microscopy.

Determining how microtubules (MTs) are nucleated is essential for understanding how the cytoskeleton assembles. While the MT nucleator, γ-tubulin ring complex (γ-TuRC) has been identified, precisely how γ-TuRC nucleates a MT remains poorly understood. Here, we developed a single molecule assay to directly visualize nucleation of a MT from purified Xenopus laevis γ-TuRC. We reveal a high γ-/αß-tubulin affinity, which facilitates assembly of a MT from γ-TuRC. Whereas spontaneous nucleation requires assembly of 8 αß-tubulins, nucleation from γ-TuRC occurs efficiently with a cooperativity of 4 αß-tubulin dimers. This is distinct from pre-assembled MT seeds, where a single dimer is sufficient to initiate growth. A computational model predicts our kinetic measurements and reveals the rate-limiting transition where laterally associated αß-tubulins drive γ-TuRC into a closed conformation. NME7, TPX2, and the putative activation domain of CDK5RAP2 h γ-TuRC-mediated nucleation, while XMAP215 drastically increases the nucleation efficiency by strengthening the longitudinal γ-/αß-tubulin interaction.