Microbial contamination in drinking water at public outdoor recreation facilities in New Zealand.

AIM: The aim of our study was to assess the presence and risk of waterborne pathogens in the drinking water of outdoor facilities in New Zealand and track potential sources of microbial contamination in water sources. METHODS AND RESULTS: A serial cross-sectional study with a risk-based sample collection strategy was conducted at 15 public campgrounds over two summer seasons (2011-2012 and 2012-2013). Drinking water supplied to these campgrounds was not compliant with national standards, based on Escherichia coli as an indicator organism, in more than half of the sampling occasions. Campylobacter contamination of drinking water at the campgrounds was likely to be of wild bird origin. Faecal samples from rails (pukeko and weka) were 35 times more likely to return a Campylobacter-positive result compared to passerines. Water treatment using ultraviolet (UV) irradiation or a combination of filtration and UV irradiation or chemicals was more likely to result in water that was compliant with the national standards than water from a tap without any treatment. The use of filters alone was not associated with the likelihood of compliance. CONCLUSIONS: Providing microbiologically safe drinking water at outdoor recreational facilities is imperative to avoid gastroenteritis outbreaks. This requires an in-depth understanding of potential sources of contamination in drinking water sources and the installation of adequate water treatment facilities. SIGNIFICANCE AND IMPACT OF THE STUDY: Our study provides evidence that drinking water without treatment or filter-only treatment in public campgrounds is unlikely to comply with national standards for human consumption and extra water treatment measures such as UV irradiation or chemical treatment are needed.

Systematic review of causes and factors associated with morbidity and mortality on smallholder dairy farms in eastern and southern Africa.

This article presents the first systematic review of the causes and factors associated with morbidity and mortality, on smallholder dairy farms in Eastern and Southern Africa. It was conducted in August 2007. Primary studies on causes of morbidity and mortality on smallholder dairy farms in the region were identified, examined and descriptive information extracted. Electronic (CAB Abstracts, PubMed, ScienceDirect and Web of Science) and non-electronic databases were used to identify and retrieve the primary studies. The retrieval process included all types of study designs with no restriction on the year of publication and language. Mastitis, tick-borne diseases (TBDs), tick infestation and diarrhoea were among the most commonly documented causes of morbidity. TBDs, diarrhoea and trypanosomiasis were among the most commonly documented causes of mortality; however, a substantial number of mortalities with undiagnosed causes were also reported. Factors ranked as most negatively associated with mastitis were residual calf suckling and increased water availability on the farm while use of common udder towel was the factor most positively associated with mastitis. Zero-grazing was ranked as the factor most negatively associated with TBDs while age was most positively associated. More intervention studies are recommended in the region to better identify animal health constraints and their associated risk factors.