Rehabilitation with implant-supported overdentures in preteens patients with ectodermal dysplasia: A cohort study.

INTRODUCTION: Hypohidrotic ectodermal dysplasia (HED) patients suffering of oligo-anodontia require early dental treatment to improve oral functions and reduce social impairment. The aim of this study was to evaluate the skeletal growth, implant and prosthetic survival rate, success, and complications after the rehabilitation with a maxillary denture and an implant-supported overdenture provided by a sliding bar in case of severe hypodontia/anodontia related to HED. MATERIALS AND METHODS: This retrospective cohort study began in 2009. Nine patients over 7 years old with HED and associated oligo-anodontia who presented at the University of Bologna for dental treatment were included in the study. They were first treated with conventional dentures and then with a maxillary denture and an implant-supported overdenture with a sliding bar connected to two implants placed in the anterior mandible. The subjects treated were followed for 3-12 years. In each case, orthopanoramic and lateral cephalometric radiographic exam were taken before implant placement and annually after prosthetic load. Vertical and transverse dimensions of the mandible in the symphysis area at implant sites were taken on the lateral cephalometric radiography at the time of implant placement and after 5 years from the prosthetic loading to assess the presence or absence of an anterior mandibular growth. Biologic and mechanical complications were also recorded at every visit. RESULTS: A mandibular vertical growth under the implant apex, at the implant neck, and a sagittal growth of the symphysis after 5 years from the prosthetic loading were observed and measured. Implant and prosthetic success and survival rates were 100% after 8.1 years (mean) follow-up period. No complications were reported except in one patient, where the repositioning of a retentive cap on the counter bar in the superstructure was necessary after 3 years from the prosthetic loading. CONCLUSIONS: The present study suggests that the growth of the mandible near implant sites continues even after their positioning. Implants can be successfully placed and provide support for prosthetic rehabilitation in preteens patients with HED.

Role of dental training and distance of the observer on the perception of apically shifted gingival margin with increased vertical tooth size in the esthetic zone.

OBJECTIVES: To evaluate the influence of the gingival contour on the smile esthetics. The influence of size, symmetry, teeth involved in apically shifted gingival margins, and the distance and clinical training of the observer were investigated. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Two groups were identified: 33 first-year dental students (inexperienced) and 40 last-year students (trained). Each observer expressed four evaluations on four different images assigning a score from 0 to 10. Using a picture of an "ideal" female smile, 10 variants were virtually created by shifting (2 and 4 mm) the gingival contour apically at different sites of the upper incisors and canines. A total of 292 evaluations were collected. RESULTS: Considering a score >6 for a "pleasant smile," only one 4 mm single alteration at the canine gingival contour obtained an insufficient score. "Observational distance" and "clinical training" did not influence the final score, while size and symmetry of alterations displayed a significant role. CONCLUSIONS: The dental training of the observer and a close interpersonal distance seemed to be irrelevant in the esthetic perception of gingival margin alterations.

Bone Modeling after Orthodontic Extrusion: A Histomorphometric Pilot Study.

During osteogenesis and bone modeling, high vascularity and osteoblastic/osteoclastic cell activity have been detected. A decrease in this activity is a sign of complete bone formation and maturation. Alveolar bone maturation seems to occur within weeks and months; however, the precise timing of the alveolar bone modeling is still unknown. The aim of this clinical pilot study was to investigate the bone modeling of neo-apposed tissue during orthodontic extrusive movements, through a histomorphometric analysis of human biopsies. This study was conducted on third mandibular molars sockets, and all teeth were extracted after orthodontic extrusion between 2010 and 2014. After different stabilization timings, extractions were performed, and a specimen of neo-deposed bone was harvested from each socket for the histomorphometric analysis. Histological parameters were evaluated to identify bone quantity and quality. This study included 12 teeth extracted from 9 patients. All specimens were composed of bone tissue. Bone samples taken after 1 and 1.5 months of stabilization presented remarkable percentages of woven bone, while after 2 months, a relevant decrease was observed. Histomorphometric analysis suggested that after orthodontic extrusion, a period of stabilization of 2 months allows the neo-deposed bone to mature.

Preparing Children for Their First Dental Visit: A Guide for Parents.

The aim of the study was to test an information booklet containing suggestions to parents on how to prepare their child for the first dental visit. Forty-five children and one parent per included child took part in the trial. Children were randomized in two groups; the information booklet was e-mailed to the parents of the study group. At the end of the visit, the dentist and the parent evaluated the child's behavior through the Frankl Behavior Rating Scale (FBRS) and the utility of the booklet through a Likert scale. The children evaluated the pleasantness of the visit and the perceived pain through the Wong-Baker FACES® Pain Rating Scale (WBFPRS). Parents evaluated the information booklet as highly understandable and useful. According to the dentist, informed children were more cooperative (FBRS median score: 4; IQR: 3.5-4) than the control group (median score 3; IQR: 2-4) (p = 0.013; Mann-Whitney U test). Children prepared with the booklet reported less pain (WBFPRS: 0.40 ± 0.82 vs. 1.42 ± 1.99; p = 0.034; t-test;) and tended to evaluate the visit as more enjoyable (WBFPRS: 1.1 ± 2.14 vs. 2.75 ± 3.43; p = 0.064; t-test) than unprepared children. The information booklet increases the child's ability to cooperate during the visit and could represent a useful instrument for the clinical practice.

Development and validation of the Italian version of the 'Parental Perceptions of Silver Diamine Fluoride Dental Color Changes' questionnaire.

BACKGROUND: The original English version of the questionnaire 'Parental Perceptions of SDF Dental Color Changes' was used among parents in the New York City metropolitan area. AIM: To develop an Italian version of the questionnaire and to assess its validity. DESIGN: The construct validity and the internal consistency were assessed in a convenience sample of Italian parents of 251 young healthy children seen at the University of Bologna and Pisa. Forward-backward technique was carried out for the translation of the questionnaire. Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin measure of sampling adequacy was equal to 0.91, and Bartlett's test of sphericity was statistically significant (P = .001), so the items were treated with the exploratory principal component analysis (PCA). RESULTS: Cronbach's alpha ranged from 0.69 to 0.95. PCA demonstrates that all the items load on the first component (87% of explained variance). All the Spearman correlation coefficients between each subscale (positive scenario: 0.563; negative scenario: 0.665) and the general acceptability showed significant correlation (P = .0001). Different age, educational level, and family income of the parents did not produce statistically significant different scores on any of the subscales (P > .05; Mann-Whitney test). CONCLUSION: The Italian version of the questionnaire showed high internal consistency and construct validity and was appropriate to be used in an Italian population.

Subgingival pathogens in chronic periodontitis patients affected by type 2 diabetes mellitus: a retrospective case-control study.

PURPOSE: The aim of this study was to compare the prevalence and bacterial load of 6 main periodontal pathogens between pairs of periodontal patients with and without type 2 diabetes mellitus. Porphyromonas gingivalis and Aggregatibacter actinomycetemcomitans genotypes were also investigated. METHODS: Twenty patients affected by chronic periodontitis and type 2 diabetes were retrospectively selected and matched to 20 patients without diabetes on the basis of the degree and severity of periodontal disease. Microbiological data of subgingival biofilms were analysed and compared for the examined pathogens: A. actinomycetemcomitans, P. gingivalis, Prevotella intermedia, Treponema denticola, Fusobacterium nucleatum, and Tannerella forsythia. RESULTS: The pairs were balanced in terms of demographic and clinical parameters, except for bleeding on probing and suppuration. In the microbiological test sites (4 for each patient), the mean probing pocket depth was 6.34±1.63 mm in patients with diabetes and 6.41±1.78 mm in patients without diabetes. No significant difference between pairs in the prevalence of P. gingivalis or the distribution of its genotypes was recorded. Patients with diabetes had a significantly greater amount of total bacterial load, P. gingivalis, T. denticola, T. forsythia, and F. nucleatum (P<0.05). Moreover, patients with diabetes had a higher number of sites with a greater cell count than patients without diabetes. When compared to the total bacterial load, only T. forsythia maintained its relative load in patients with diabetes (P=0.001). CONCLUSIONS: This retrospective matched study supports the hypothesis that microbiological differences exist among periodontal patients with and without diabetes mellitus. TRIAL REGISTRATION: ClinicalTrials.gov Identifier: NCT03786133.

Rapid maxillary expansion on oral breathing children: effects on tongue location, hyoid position and breathing. A pilot study.

BACKGROUND: Oral breathing and downward tongue position are generally associated with transverse hypo-development of the upper maxilla. Rapid maxillary expansion aims to expand the upper maxilla transversely. This pilot retrospective clinical study evaluates the effects of rapid maxillary expansion therapy on the resting position of the tongue, on the position of the hyoid bone and on clinical respiratory pattern in a group of mouth breathing patients with mono- or bilateral cross-bites due to transversal deficits of the maxilla. METHODS: A total of 39 prepubertal oral breathing subjects with posterior cross-bite (mean age 8.5 year) have been studied. Before (T0) and after treatment (T1), changes in the position of the hyoid bone and tongue were evaluated by comparing latero-lateral radiographs (TLL), while the modification of respiratory patterns by a clinical and anamnestic assessment. RESULTS: After the treatment, the dorsum of tongue moved closer to the palatine vault, the position of the hyoid bone did not undergo significant variations and the respiratory pattern clinically improved in 64% of subjects. CONCLUSIONS: In patients in early stages of oral respiratory development, rapid maxillary expansion promoted correct tongue position but did not produce significant changes in the position of the hyoid bone. It has been observed a general improvement of the breathing pattern.

Case report of a novel interim approach to prevent early posteruptive enamel breakdown of molar-incisor hypomineralization-affected molars.

BACKGROUND AND OVERVIEW: Severely molar-incisor hypomineralization (MIH)-affected teeth are prone to develop early posteruptive enamel breakdown (PEB) and caries. A novel conservative interim approach for the prevention of this complication is presented. CASE DESCRIPTION: A 6-year-old boy with strong hypersensitivity and extensive brown opacities in the partially erupted mandibular permanent first molars (PFMs) was diagnosed with MIH. Constant hygiene and dietary counseling were followed by the application of luted orthodontic bands and glass ionomer sealants to protect PFMs from caries and PEB until the complete eruption of the teeth. After 36 months, the PFMs were completely erupted, with no caries and PEB, and the cooperation of the child increased. CONCLUSIONS AND PRACTICAL IMPLICATIONS: Temporary strategies are useful to preserve MIH-affected PFMs. With the methodology described, the hypersensitivity decreased and the patient reached a good degree of cooperation, making possible definitive rehabilitative considerations.

Evaluation of Floss Remnants After Implant Flossing in Three Different Implant Conditions: A Preclinical Study.

PURPOSE: The aim of this preclinical study was to evaluate whether implant flossing could leave floss residues in three different implant-prosthetic conditions. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Using an anatomical model, three different conditions were studied: correct connection between the implant and abutment and complete insertion of the implant threads into the plaster (control group); misfit of approximately 220 to 230 µm between the implant platform and abutment in the absence of any thread exposure (misfit group); partial exposure of implant threads but absence of misfit (thread group). Twenty-one microstructured tapered threaded implants were divided among the three groups. Each sample was subjected to a flossing procedure using spongy floss, standardized in terms of movement, frequency, time, and pressure. Subsequently, a stereomicroscope examination with a standardized magnification of 10× was performed in order to highlight the possible presence of floss residues on the implant surface. RESULTS: No floss residue was ever detected for the control group. Both misfit and thread groups showed floss residues that were discernible in two different types: microfilaments and amorphous particles. Statistical analysis showed a significant difference for the presence of floss remnants between the control group and the other two experimental groups (P = .005). No difference was observed between the misfit and thread groups. CONCLUSION: This study shows that exposed threads and misfit can induce the release of floss residues during maintenance procedures.

Craniofacial and occlusal features of children with Noonan syndrome.

Craniofacial features of 12 children with Noonan syndrome (NS) were compared with age and gender matched healthy children. Dental history, panoramic radiograph, dental casts, and cephalometric measurements were assessed. The palatal height was significantly increased in the study group compared with the control group (p = .009; paired t-test). The palatal width was significantly reduced in the study group compared with the control group (p = .006; paired t-test). The mean SNB was reduced in the study group compared with the control group (p = .02; paired t-test) and the ANB increased (p = .009; paired t-test). The mean Sum (NSAr + SArGo + ArgoMe) angle and SN-GoMe were increased in the study group compared with the control group (respectively, p = .015 and p = .002; paired t-test). The cephalometric analysis assessed a retruded position of the mandible, skeletal class II characteristics, and a vertical growth pattern. The mandibular hyperdivergency was associated to a positive overbite.

Applicability of Demirjian's method for age estimation in a sample of Italian children with Down syndrome: A case-control retrospective study.

Age estimation is widely applied in several clinical and forensic fields. The radiographic evaluation of dental development is one of the most accepted tools for this purpose. Among the different methods proposed, Demirjian's method was the most extensively used and tested in the medical literature revealing that the original standards for the French-Canadian population tends to over-estimate the age of different population groups. The aims of this study were to evaluate the applicability of the Demirjian method in a sample of Italian children with Down syndrome (DS) and to compare the data with age and gender matched healthy subjects (non-DS). A retrospective study was performed on 146 orthopantomograms of DS individuals aged 6.3-16 years. The mean chronological age (CA) and the mean dental age (DA) were calculated. Using Cohen's kappa statistics, the inter- and intra-examiner agreement was reported as good (k = 0.75) and very good (k = 0.86). The differences between CAs and DAs were statistically significant for males and females (Wilcoxon Signed Rank test; p < 0.05). The median overestimation was 0.6 years in males and 0.9 years in females. Demirjian's method is unsuitable for dental age estimation in DS individuals. The same trend in overestimation was found in the control group. Comparing DS and non-DS subjects, the differences between DAs were not statistically significant for both males and females revealing that the dental development process is similar.

Oral Health Status in Alzheimer's Disease Patients: A Descriptive Study in an Italian Population.

AIM: To evaluate the oral health status in Alzheimer's disease (AD) patients. MATERIALS AND METHODS: A descriptive study was performed on 120 AD patients (60 institutionalized in a public institute and 60 attended a daytime center), from September 2013 to January 2014. About 103 subjects formed the control group. The following medical and dental data were collected: dementia severity, pharmacological therapy, physical status (American Society of Anesthesiologists [ASA]), decayed (D), filled (F), and remaining natural teeth (T), DF/T ratio, community periodontal index (CPI), and gingival index (GI). A t-test for independent samples and the Spearman's correlation test were used to evaluate all variables. The significance level was set at 0.05. RESULTS: Statistically more AD patients (91.7%) were under pharmacological therapy and their physical status was more severe (ASA 2, ASA 3) compared with control subjects (p < 0.001). Moreover, they presented numbers of D, CPI, and GI significantly higher (p ≤ 0.005). In the institutionalized subgroup, statistically more moderate and severe AD cases were detected and more patients were edentulous (p < 0.001). Noninstitutionalized patients presented DF/T ratio, CPI, and GI significantly lower (p ≤ 0.024). A significant weak negative correlation (r = -0.121 to -0.372) between epidemiologic indices and AD severity was observed. CONCLUSION: Alzheimer's disease patients show a low oral health status that decreases progressively as the disease severity aggravates. Therefore, further studies are necessary to investigate oral health care interventions for AD patients. CLINICAL SIGNIFICANCE: It would be beneficial to introduce trained professional figures in specialized elderly institutions for regular follow-up visits and professional oral hygiene procedures. This task has to be coordinated with the treating physician, family members, and/or caregivers. Knowing that the severity of AD has a negative effect on the oral health status and the type of institutionalization exacerbates it.

Effects of audiovisual distraction in children with special healthcare needs during dental restorations: a randomized crossover clinical trial.

BACKGROUND: Audiovisual distraction using video eyeglasses is useful in managing distress and reducing fear and anxiety in healthy children during dental treatments. AIM: To evaluate the effect of audiovisual distraction on behavior and self-reported pain of children with special healthcare needs (SHCN) without intellectual disability during dental restorations and its influence on the operator stress and the time of the appointment. MATERIAL AND METHODS: This randomized controlled crossover trial comprised 48 children with SHCN requiring at least two dental restorations. One restoration was done wearing the video eyeglasses and one wearing conventional behavior management techniques. Subjective and objective pain was evaluated using the Faces Pain Scale - Revised (FPS-R) and the revised Face, Leg, Activity, Cry, and Consolability scale (r-FLACC). The operator stress using a VAS, the time of the appointment, and the child satisfaction were recorded. RESULTS: The use of video eyeglasses significantly reduced the operator stress. The bivariate analysis showed that the mean FPS-R score and the mean r-FLACC score were significantly lower using the video eyeglasses only during the second clinical session. CONCLUSION: Audiovisual distraction could be useful in managing distress in SHCN children without intellectual disability but cannot replace the conventional behavior management techniques.

Oro-dental features of Pallister-Killian syndrome: Evaluation of 21 European probands.

Pallister-Killian syndrome (PKS) is a rare sporadic multi-systemic developmental disorder caused by a mosaic tetrasomy of the short arm of chromosome 12. A wide range of clinical characteristics including intellectual disability, seizures, and congenital malformations has previously been described. Individuals with PKS show a characteristic facial phenotype with frontal bossing, alopecia, sparse eyebrows, depressed nasal bridge, long philtrum, telecanthus, and posteriorly rotated ears. Oro-dental features, such as "Pallister lip," macroglossia, delayed eruption of primary teeth, high arched-palate, prognathism, and cleft palate have been occasionally reported in the medical literature. The aim of the study was to assess the oro-dental phenotype of PKS and to describe the oral health status in a cohort participating in the First European Workshop on PKS. A clinical dental examination was performed in 21 Caucasian probands and data regarding medical and dental history collected. Twelve probands (57%) showed an atypical dental pattern, with multiple missing teeth (primarily the first permanent molars) and 2 (10%) a double teeth. The severity of gingivitis and dental caries increased with age and gingival overgrowth was a common finding. A characteristic occlusive phenotype was found: a high-arched palate with mandibular prognathism associated with an anterior openbite and crossbite and with posterior crossbite (unilateral or bilateral). The prevalence of oral habits (non-nutritive sucking, mouth breathing, bruxism) was high, even in older probands. This study suggests that individuals affected by PKS should be observed closely for oro-dental diseases and a multidisciplinary approach is needed to implement the right preventive measures. © 2016 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.

Orthodontic treatment of a particular subgroup of children with special health care needs, children with craniofacial anomalies: An analysis of treatment length and clinical outcome.

OBJECTIVE: To analyze any differences in the orthodontic treatment between children belonging to a particular subgroup of subjects with special health care needs (SHCN), children with craniofacial anomalies (CFA), and children not diagnosed with SHCN (NO SHCN). MATERIALS AND METHODS: The study sample consisted of 50 children with SHCN and a confirmed diagnosis of CFA (SHCN/CFA); the control group consisted of 50 NO SHCN children fully matched for age, gender, and type of appliance used. The differences between the two groups were analyzed retrospectively: pre-, posttreatment scores, and score reduction of the Peer Assessment Rating Index (PAR), dental health component (DHC), and aesthetic component (AC) of Orthodontic Treatment Need Index (IOTN), number of appointments, number of simple or complex chair-time appointments, overall treatment time, and age at treatment start and end. RESULTS: There were no statistically significant differences between the SHCN/CFA and NO SHCN groups for number of appointments, overall treatment time, age at treatment start, and age at treatment end (P  =  .682, .458, .535, and .675, respectively). There were statistically significant differences between groups in PAR, DHC, AC pre- and posttreatment, and number of simple and complex chair-time appointments (P  =  .030 and .000; .020 and .023; .000 and .000; .043; and .037; respectively). The reduction of PAR, DHC, and AC scores was not significantly different between groups (P  =  .060, .765, and .825, respectively). CONCLUSION: The treatment of children with SHCN, in general, and with CFA, in particular, on the one hand involves a higher rate of using complex chair time appointments and an inferior treatment outcome, by the other side implies an overall treatment time and a reduction of PAR, DHC or AC scores similar to the treatment of children not diagnosed with SHCN.

Fear of dental pain in Italian children: child personality traits and parental dental fear.

OBJECTIVES: Dental anxiety could impede dental treatment in children. Evidence shows that parents' fear of dentists contributes to children's anxiety towards dentists. The aim of the present study was to determine whether and to what extent: a) parents' anxiety and depression personality traits, b) parent's dental fear, and c) child personality traits can predict children's dental anxiety in an Italian population. METHODS: One hundred and four children (5-14 years old) and one of their parents participated in the study. Well-known and validated questionnaires were administered to children (MCDASf, CFSS-DS, TAD) and parents (FDPQ, STAI Y1, Y2, and BDI-II). RESULT: Dental anxiety is significantly associated with the anxiety personality trait and depression of the child and with parental fear of dental pain. A hierarchical regression analysis showed that, regardless of age and gender, the best predictor of child dental anxiety is parent's fear of dental pain, rather than relatively stable temperaments of the child. CONCLUSIONS: In line with the literature concerning adults, these findings highlight the children dental anxiety as a complex phenomena consisting of different components, including the child's personality traits (anxiety trait and depression) and parents' dental fear. Clinical implications of this evidence are discussed.

Effect on plaque control in children patients with Down syndrome using Digital Brush with or without chlorhexidine: a randomized clinical trial.

OBJECTIVES: The aim of this study was to evaluate efficacy in children affected by Down syndrome of "Digital Brush" in terms of Plaque Index reduction added to the daily oral hygiene procedures. METHODS: A total of 56 patients with Down syndrome were recruited and randomly assigned in two groups: both control and test groups underwent standard hygiene procedures of tooth brushing twice a day followed by the intervention of Digital Brush, TNT gauze impregnated with chlorhexidine 0.12%, for the test group and by sterile gauze soaked in water for the control group. Initial plaque index was measured for all patients (T0), subsequently were instructed to use either Digital Brush or gauze soaked with water for 2 weeks. At last, patients were reevaluated (T1) and the plaque index measured. RESULTS: Plaque index improvement from T0 to T1 in control group was 11.7%, while in test group was 24.1%. The mean differences between test and control group was statistically significant (p < 0.001). CONCLUSIONS: This study demonstrates how the Digital Brush, added to the daily oral hygiene procedures, obtains significant improvements in supragingival plaque control in children with Down syndrome.

Impact of a risk management plan on Legionella contamination of dental unit water.

The study aimed to assess the prevalence of Legionella spp. in dental unit waterlines of a dental clinic and to verify whether the microbiological parameters used as indicators of water quality were correlated with Legionella contamination. A risk management plan was subsequently implemented in the dental health care setting, in order to verify whether the adopted disinfection protocols were effective in preventing Legionella colonization. The water delivered from syringes and turbines of 63 dental units operating in a dental clinic, was monitored for counts of the heterotrophic bacteria P. aeruginosa and Legionella spp. (22 °C and 37 °C). At baseline, output water from dental units continuously treated with disinfection products was more compliant with the recommended standards than untreated and periodically treated water. However, continuous disinfection was still not able to prevent contamination by Legionella and P. aeruginosa. Legionella was isolated from 36.4%, 24.3% and 53.3% of samples from untreated, periodically and continuously treated waterlines, respectively. The standard microbiological parameters used as indicators of water quality proved to be unreliable as predictors of the presence of Legionella, whose source was identified as the tap water used to supply the dental units. The adoption of control measures, including the use of deionized water in supplying the dental unit waterlines and the application of a combined protocol of continuous and periodic disinfection, with different active products for the different devices, resulted in good control of Legionella contamination. The efficacy of the measures adopted was mainly linked to the strict adherence to the planned protocols, which placed particular stress on staff training and ongoing environmental monitoring.

X-linked hypophosphatemic rickets: enamel abnormalities and oral clinical findings.

X-linked hypophosphatemia (XLH) is a genetic disorder related to alterations in bones and teeth formation, due to low levels of phosphate in blood. Oral findings in XLH have been enamel and dentine abnormalities, high pulp horns, large pulp chambers, and some cases of periapical abscesses related to teeth without caries or traumatic injuries. The aim of our study was to assess the presence of enamel alterations, such as microclefts and/or structure defects in patients with XLH and give guidelines of prevention of XLH dental complications. History taking, oral clinical and radiological examination in 10 young patients affected by XLH (average age of 9) and in 6 patients without XLH (average age of 8). Impressions were performed on the vestibular surfaces of teeth in order to obtain replicas. The replicas were analyzed using scanning electron microscope (SEM) and compared to replicas of control group. The images of replicas of XLH patients showed deep microclefts and irregular enamel surface structure compared to replicas of control group. The replica of a patient with spontaneous periapical abscesses showed numerous enamel crater-shaped depressions and deep microcleavages penetrating into the enamel thickness. In absence of caries or fractures, the abscesses pathogenesis may be related to microcleavages of the enamel and dentin, which allow bacterial invasion of the pulp. There could be a relationship between XLH disease and enamel abnormalities.

Oral rehabilitation of children with ectodermal dysplasia.

The aim of this study was to describe the clinical treatment of young patients, affected by ectodermal dysplasia (ED), and to possibly establish clinical guidelines. The study design was case series. ED syndromes (EDs) are a heterogeneous group of inherited diseases characterised by abnormal development of tissues of ectodermal origin. The most common form of EDs is X linked hypohidrotic ED (HED). Characteristic triad of HED is oligo-anodontia, hypotricosis, hypo-anhydrosis. Oligo-anodontia is one of the most severe impairment, since it affects chewing, swallowing, speech, esthetics and social relation. Early prosthetic rehabilitation (at 2-3 years of age), with partial or complete dentures, is essential to improve oral function and reduce the social impairment.