Emerging and Re-emerging Diseases of Selected Avian Species.

Emerging infections and re-emerging diseases in birds can be caused by numerous factors and need to be recognized and understood. This article introduces and summarizes author-selected emerging and re-emerging diseases of avian species. These diseases hold significance as they relate to scientific research, disease recognition and identification, avian welfare aspects, and ecosystem health. Some are significant in human health and others affect production medicine. These and many others remain important pathogens of worldwide consequence.

Use of a Compounded Poloxamer 407 Antibiotic Topical Therapy as Part of the Successful Management of Chronic Ulcerative Dermatitis in a Congo African Grey Parrot ( Psittacus erithacus).

A 23-year-old, 425-g male African grey parrot ( Psittacus erithacus) was evaluated for chronic ulcerative dermatitis of the axillary regions under both wings. Initial swab cultures of the sites had revealed a coagulase-positive methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureas (MRSA) with marked antibiotic resistance. A second swab culture obtained 8 weeks after the initial culture showed heavy growth of a coagulase-positive Staphylococcus species, which could not be speciated, but showed the same sensitivity as the previous culture. Previous treatment included systemic antibiotics and a topical antimicrobial cream, with variable response and only temporary resolution. On examination, full-thickness, ulcerative, necrotic dermatitis was present under both wings with intermittent bleeding and subdermal tissue exposure. Initial treatment included wound debridement, oral antibiotics, topical therapy, analgesics, and bandages. After a relapse, a poloxamer gel containing 2% doxycycline, 1% chloramphenicol, and 0.5% mupirocin was used in combination with oral antibiotics and analgesics. On follow-up examination, the skin lesions had completely resolved and the patient was doing well and remains normal 4 years later. This report emphasizes the importance of prompt, aggressive multi-modal therapy for MRSA and other dermal bacterial infections in pet birds that may represent zoonoses or have carrier-state zoonotic potential. Preparation by a compounding pharmacy of a transdermal poloxamer gel containing antibiotics shows promise for severe, infected, ulcerative skin lesions in birds when other therapies fail to achieve a cure.

Small exotic companion mammal wellness management and environmental enrichment.

Wellness management and environmental enrichment are important components of preventative veterinary medical care. Small exotic mammals represent a diverse group of pets with widely varying types of care, diet, and husbandry considerations; thus, environmental enrichment must go beyond the cage or tank design in order to provide proper mental fitness in meeting any pet's psychological needs. Addressing the pet's environmental, dietary, exercise, and social needs is vital to keeping these animals healthier and more disease resistant. The key to accomplishing this is largely impacted by the annual or biannual veterinary wellness visit and a commitment from the pet's owner.

Evaluation of Chlamydophila psittaci infection and other risk factors for atherosclerosis in pet psittacine birds.

OBJECTIVE: To determine whether the presence of Chlamydophila psittaci antigen, plasma cholesterol concentration, diet, sex, species, and age are risk factors for the development of atherosclerosis in pet psittacine birds. DESIGN: Retrospective case-control study. ANIMALS: 31 psittacine birds with atherosclerosis (study birds) and 31 psittacine birds without atherosclerosis (control birds). PROCEDURES: Necropsy reports were reviewed, birds with a histopathologic diagnosis of atherosclerosis were identified, and available medical records were reviewed. Signalment, history, clinicopathologic findings, and other relevant data were recorded and evaluated. Control birds did not have atherosclerosis and were chosen by both convenience sampling and population demographics. Histologic sections of great vessels from all birds (study and control birds) were reviewed and then submitted for immunohistochemical staining for the presence of C psittaci antigen. RESULTS: Result of immunohistochemical staining for C psittaci antigen in blood vessels was significantly associated with atherosclerosis. After adjusting for age, species origin, and type of illness, the odds of atherosclerosis was 7 times as high for birds with positive immunohistochemical staining for C psittaci antigen, compared with that of birds with negative immunohistochemical staining. Study birds and control birds differed significantly only with respect to plasma cholesterol concentrations. The median plasma cholesterol concentration of study birds (421 mg/dL) was significantly higher than that of control birds (223 mg/dL). CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL RELEVANCE: Infection with C psittaci and a high plasma cholesterol concentration may be risk factors for developing atherosclerosis in pet psittacine birds.

Restricted enzooticity of hepatitis E virus genotypes 1 to 4 in the United States.

Hepatitis E is recognized as a zoonosis, and swine are known reservoirs, but how broadly enzootic its causative agent, hepatitis E virus (HEV), is remains controversial. To determine the prevalence of HEV infection in animals, a serological assay with capability to detect anti-HEV-antibody across a wide variety of animal species was devised. Recombinant antigens comprising truncated capsid proteins generated from HEV-subgenomic constructs that represent all four viral genotypes were used to capture anti-HEV in the test sample and as an analyte reporter. To facilitate development and validation of the assay, serum samples were assembled from blood donors (n = 372), acute hepatitis E patients (n = 94), five laboratory animals (rhesus monkey, pig, New Zealand rabbit, Wistar rat, and BALB/c mouse) immunized with HEV antigens, and four pigs experimentally infected with HEV. The assay was then applied to 4,936 sera collected from 35 genera of animals that were wild, feral, domesticated, or otherwise held captive in the United States. Test positivity was determined in 457 samples (9.3%). These originated from: bison (3/65, 4.6%), cattle (174/1,156, 15%), dogs (2/212, 0.9%), Norway rats (2/318, 0.6%), farmed swine (267/648, 41.2%), and feral swine (9/306, 2.9%). Only the porcine samples yielded the highest reactivities. HEV RNA was amplified from one farmed pig and two feral pigs and characterized by nucleotide sequencing to belong to genotype 3. HEV infected farmed swine primarily, and the role of other animals as reservoirs of its zoonotic spread appears to be limited.

Clinical hematology of rodent species.

Pet rodents, such as rats, guinea pigs, and chinchillas, differ from more traditional companion animal species in many aspects of their hematologic parameters. Animals within this order have much diversity in size, anatomy, methods of restraint, and blood collection technique. Appropriate sample collection is often the most challenging aspect of the diagnostic protocol, and inappropriate restraint may cause a stress response that interferes with blood test results. For many of these patients, sedation is required and can also affect results as well. In most cases, however, obtaining a standard database is necessary and very possible when providing medical care for this popular group of pets.

The anatomy and physiology of the avian endocrine system.

The endocrine system of birds is comparable to that of mammals, although there are many unique aspects to consider when studying the anatomy, physiology, and biochemistry. Avian endocrinology is a field of veterinary medicine that is unfamiliar to many practitioners; however, it is important to have a comprehensive understanding when evaluating companion birds in clinical practice. This article covers the anatomy and physiology of the normal avian, and readers are referred to other articles for a more detailed explanation of altered physiology and pathology.

The avian pancreas in health and disease.

The avian endocrine pancreas shares some similarities with mammals but also some clinically relevant differences in anatomy and physiology. Diabetes mellitus, an uncommon disease of pet birds, is a challenging condition because of lack of knowledge of the exact pathophysiology and responses to insulin therapy. This article reviews the anatomy and physiology of the avian pancreas and describes the etiology, diagnosis, and treatment of diabetes mellitus in pet birds.

Air sac cannula placement in birds.

Air sac cannulas are indicated in birds with upper respiratory obstruction or for ventilation during surgical procedures involving the head and neck. Proper technique, knowledge of potential complications, and an understanding of the indications for air sac tube placement are important for scientists, veterinarians, and technicians who work with birds.

Prairie dog care and husbandry.

The species of prairie dog most commonly found in the pet trade is the black-tailed prairie dog, Cynomus ludovicianus. These prairie dogs are active, playful, and strong rodents that can make wonderful, affectionate pets when they are properly socialized and given attention. However, with a life span of 8 to 12 years, prairie dogs require a lot of care and a long-term commitment. Prairie dogs live in colonies; thus, they are highly social animals. Potential owners should understand a prairie dog's need for attention before adopting one.

Ferrets: wound healing and therapy.

In all species of mammals, the stages of wound healing are the same, and both host factors and wound characteristics affect how wounds heal. The basic principles of wound care in ferrets, such as lavage, bandaging, and surgical closure, are similar to those in other species; however, knowledge of ferrets' anatomy and pathophysiology, as well as skin conditions commonly seen in ferrets, will help ensure proper wound healing.