A Proteomic Approach Identified TFEB as a Key Player in the Protective Action of Novel CB2R Bitopic Ligand FD22a against the Deleterious Effects Induced by ß-Amyloid in Glial Cells.

Neurodegenerative diseases (NDDs) are progressive multifactorial disorders of the nervous system sharing common pathogenic features, including intracellular misfolded protein aggregation, mitochondrial deficit, and inflammation. Taking into consideration the multifaceted nature of NDDs, development of multitarget-directed ligands (MTDLs) has evolved as an attractive therapeutic strategy. Compounds that target the cannabinoid receptor type II (CB2R) are rapidly emerging as novel effective MTDLs against common NDDs, such as Alzheimer's disease (AD). We recently developed the first CB2R bitopic/dualsteric ligand, namely FD22a, which revealed the ability to induce neuroprotection with fewer side effects. To explore the potential of FD22a as a multitarget drug for the treatment of NDDs, we investigated here its ability to prevent the toxic effect of ß-amyloid (Aß25-35 peptide) on human cellular models of neurodegeneration, such as microglia (HMC3) and glioblastoma (U87-MG) cell lines. Our results displayed that FD22a efficiently prevented Aß25-35 cytotoxic and proinflammatory effects in both cell lines and counteracted ß-amyloid-induced depression of autophagy in U87-MG cells. Notably, a quantitative proteomic analysis of U87-MG cells revealed that FD22a was able to potently stimulate the autophagy-lysosomal pathway (ALP) by activating its master transcriptional regulator TFEB, ultimately increasing the potential of this novel CB2R bitopic/dualsteric ligand as a multitarget drug for the treatment of NDDs.

Beta-Caryophyllene, a Cannabinoid Receptor Type 2 Selective Agonist, in Emotional and Cognitive Disorders.

Mental disorders account for one of the most prevalent categories of the burden of disease worldwide, with depression expected to be the largest contributor by 2030, closely followed by anxiety. The COVID-19 pandemic possibly exacerbated these challenges, especially amongst adolescents, who experienced isolation, disrupted routines, and limited healthcare access. Notably, the pandemic has been associated with long-term neurological effects known as "long-COVID", characterized by both cognitive and psychopathological symptoms. In general, psychiatric disorders, including those related to long-COVID, are supposed to be due to widespread inflammation leading to neuroinflammation. Recently, the endocannabinoid system (ECS) emerged as a potential target for addressing depression and anxiety pathophysiology. Specifically, natural or synthetic cannabinoids, able to selectively interact with cannabinoid type-2 receptor (CB2R), recently revealed new therapeutic potential in neuropsychiatric disorders with limited or absent psychotropic activity. Among the most promising natural CB2R ligands, the bicyclic sesquiterpene ß-caryophyllene (BCP) has emerged as an excellent anti-inflammatory and antioxidant therapeutic agent. This review underscores BCP's immunomodulatory and anti-inflammatory properties, highlighting its therapeutic potential for the management of depression and anxiety.

Performance in Behavioral Testing in an Animal Model of Post-Surgical Hypoparathyroidism.

BACKGROUND: Hypoparathyroidism (HypoPT) is characterized by hypocalcemia and undetectable/inappropriately low PTH. Post-surgical HypoPT (PS-HypoPT) is the most common cause. Patients with PS-HypoPT present neuropsychological symptoms, probably due to the PTH deprivation in the central nervous system (CNS). However, these mechanisms are still not elucidated. The aim of this study was to evaluate the effects of PTH deprivation on CNS in an animal model of PS-HypoPT via a cognitive/behavioral assessment approach. METHODS: A surgical rat model of PS-HypoPT was obtained and treated with calcium to maintain normocalcemia. Twenty PS-HypoPT rats and twenty sham-operated controls (Crl) underwent behavioral testing in a Morris Water Maze (MWM), Open Field (OF), and Elevated Plus Maze (EPM). RESULTS: In the MWM, PTx rats showed a higher Escape Latency Time compared to Crl rats (p < 0.05); we observed a statistically significant improvement in the performance (day 1 to 8 p < 0.001), which was less pronounced in PTx group. In the OF test, the time and distance spent in the zone of interest were significantly lower in the PTx group compared with the Crl (p < 0.01 and p < 0.01). In the EPM experiment, the time spent in the close arm was significantly higher in the PTx group compared with the Crl (p < 0.01). CONCLUSIONS: This animal model of PS-HypoPT shows an impairment in spatial memory, which improved after training, and a marked anxiety-like behavior, resembling the condition of patients with PS-HypoPT. Further studies are needed to elucidate mechanisms.

The Interplay between Cannabinoid Receptors and Microglia in the Pathophysiology of Alzheimer's Disease.

Alzheimer's disease (AD) is characterized by massive neuronal death, brain atrophy, and loss of neurons and synapses, which all lead to a progressive cognitive decline. Neuroinflammation has been recently identified as one of the main causes of AD progression, and microglia cells are considered to have a central role in this process. Growing evidence suggests that cannabinoids may be used as preventive treatment for AD. An altered expression of the endocannabinoids (eCBs) and their receptors (CBRs) is reported in several neurodegenerative disorders, including AD. Moreover, the modulation of CBRs demonstrated neuroprotective effects in reducing aggregated protein deposition, suggesting the therapeutic potential of natural and synthetic CBR ligands in the treatment of neurodegenerative proteinopathies. Here, we review the current knowledge regarding the involvement of CBRs in the modulation of microglia activation phenotypes, highlighting the role of neuroinflammation in the pathogenesis of neurodegenerative diseases, like AD. We also provide an overview of recently developed candidate drugs targeting CBRs that may afford a new innovative strategy for the treatment and management of AD.

Tanshinone IIA and Cryptotanshinone Counteract Inflammation by Regulating Gene and miRNA Expression in Human SGBS Adipocytes.

Inflammation of the adipose tissue contributes to the onset and progression of several chronic obesity-related diseases. The two most important lipophilic diterpenoid compounds found in the root of Salvia milthorrhiza Bunge (also called Danshen), tanshinone IIA (TIIA) and cryptotanshinone (CRY), have many favorable pharmacological effects. However, their roles in obesity-associated adipocyte inflammation and related sub-networks have not been fully elucidated. In the present study, we investigated the gene, miRNAs and protein expression profile of prototypical obesity-associated dysfunction markers in inflamed human adipocytes treated with TIIA and CRY. The results showed that TIIA and CRY prevented tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-α induced inflammatory response in adipocytes, by counter-regulating the pattern of secreted cytokines/chemokines associated with adipocyte inflammation (CCL2/MCP-1, CXCL10/IP-10, CCL5/RANTES, CXCL1/GRO-α, IL-6, IL-8, MIF and PAI-1/Serpin E1) via the modulation of gene expression (as demonstrated for CCL2/MCP-1, CXCL10/IP-10, CCL5/RANTES, CXCL1/GRO-α, and IL-8), as well as related miRNA expression (miR-126-3p, miR-223-3p, miR-124-3p, miR-155-5p, and miR-132-3p), and by attenuating monocyte recruitment. This is the first demonstration of a beneficial effect by TIIA and CRY on adipocyte dysfunction associated with obesity development and complications, offering a new outlook for the prevention and/or treatment of metabolic diseases.

T1AM/TAAR1 System Reduces Inflammatory Response and ß-Amyloid Toxicity in Human Microglial HMC3 Cell Line.

Microglial dysfunction is one of the hallmarks and leading causes of common neurodegenerative diseases (NDDs), including Alzheimer's disease (AD) and Parkinson's disease (PD). All these pathologies are characterized by aberrant aggregation of disease-causing proteins in the brain, which can directly activate microglia, trigger microglia-mediated neuroinflammation, and increase oxidative stress. Inhibition of glial activation may represent a therapeutic target to alleviate neurodegeneration. Recently, 3-iodothyronamine (T1AM), an endogenous derivative of thyroid hormone (TH) able to interact directly with a specific GPCR known as trace amine-associated receptor 1 (TAAR1), gained interest for its ability to promote neuroprotection in several models. Nevertheless, T1AM's effects on microglial disfunction remain still elusive. In the present work we investigated whether T1AM could inhibit the inflammatory response of human HMC3 microglial cells to LPS/TNFα or ß-amyloid peptide 25-35 (Aß25-35) stimuli. The results of ELISA and qPCR assays revealed that T1AM was able to reduce microglia-mediated inflammatory response by inhibiting the release of proinflammatory factors, including IL-6, TNFα, NF-kB, MCP1, and MIP1, while promoting the release of anti-inflammatory mediators, such as IL-10. Notably, T1AM anti-inflammatory action in HMC3 cells turned out to be a TAAR1-mediated response, further increasing the relevance of the T1AM/TAAR1 system in the management of NDDs.

New Insights into Bitopic Orthosteric/Allosteric Ligands of Cannabinoid Receptor Type 2.

Very recently, we have developed a new generation of ligands targeting the cannabinoid receptor type 2 (CB2R), namely JR compounds, which combine the pharmacophoric portion of the CB2R positive allosteric modulator (PAM), EC21a, with that of the CB2R selective orthosteric agonist LV62, both synthesized in our laboratories. The functional examination enabled us to identify JR14a, JR22a, and JR64a as the most promising compounds of the series. In the current study, we focused on the assessment of the bitopic (dualsteric) nature of these three compounds. Experiments in cAMP assays highlighted that only JR22a behaves as a CB2R bitopic (dualsteric) ligand. In parallel, computational studies helped us to clarify the binding mode of these three compounds at CB2R, confirming the bitopic (dualsteric) nature of JR22a. Finally, the potential of JR22a to prevent neuroinflammation was investigated on a human microglial cell inflammatory model.

The phenolic compounds tyrosol and hydroxytyrosol counteract liver fibrogenesis via the transcriptional modulation of NADPH oxidases and oxidative stress-related miRNAs.

Liver fibrosis is the result of a chronic pathological condition caused by the activation of hepatic stellate cells (HSCs), which induces the excessive deposition of extracellular matrix. Fibrogenesis is sustained by an exaggerated production of reactive oxidative species (ROS) by NADPH oxidases (NOXs), which are overactivated in hepatic inflammation. In this study, we investigated the antifibrotic properties of two phenolic compounds of natural origin, tyrosol (Tyr) and hydroxytyrosol (HTyr), known for their antioxidant and anti-inflammatory effects. We assessed Tyr and HTyr antifibrotic and antioxidant activity both in vitro, by a co-culture of LX2, HepG2 and THP1-derived Mϕ macrophages, set up to simulate the hepatic microenvironment, and in vivo, in a mouse model of liver fibrosis obtained by carbon tetrachloride treatment. We evaluated the mRNA and protein expression of profibrotic and oxidative markers (α-SMA, COL1A1, NOX1/4) by qPCR and/or immunocytochemistry or immunohistochemistry. The expression of selected miRNAs in mouse livers were measured by qPCR. Tyr and HTyr reduces fibrogenesis in vitro and in vivo, by downregulating all fibrotic markers. Notably, they also modulated oxidative stress by restoring the physiological levels of NOX1 and NOX4. In vivo, this effect was accompanied by a transcriptional regulation of inflammatory genes and of 2 miRNAs involved in the control of oxidative stress damage (miR-181-5p and miR-29b-3p). In conclusion, Tyr and HTyr exert antifibrotic and anti-inflammatory effects in preclinical in vitro and in vivo models of liver fibrosis, by modulating hepatic oxidative stress, representing promising candidates for further development.

Complexing the Marine Sesquiterpene Euplotin C by Means of Cyclodextrin-Based Nanosponges: A Preliminary Investigation.

Euplotin C is a sesquiterpene of marine origin endowed with significant anti-microbial and anti-tumor properties. Despite the promising functional profile, its progress as a novel drug candidate has failed so far, due to its scarce solubility and poor stability in aqueous media, such as biological fluids. Therefore, overcoming these limits is an intriguing challenge for the scientific community. In this work, we synthesized ß-cyclodextrin-based nanosponges and investigated their use as colloidal carriers for stably complex euplotin C. Results obtained proved the ability of the carrier to include the natural compound, showing remarkable values of both loading efficiency and capacity. Moreover, it also allowed us to preserve the chemical structure of the loaded compound, which was recovered unaltered once extracted from the complex. Therefore, the use of ß-cyclodextrin-based nanosponges represents a viable option to vehiculate euplotin C, thus opening up its possible use as pharmacologically active compound.

Design, synthesis and biological evaluation of novel orthosteric-allosteric ligands of the cannabinoid receptor type 2 (CB2R).

It is well known that G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) assume multiple active states. Orthosteric ligands and/or allosteric modulators can preferentially stabilize specific conformations, giving rise to pathway-biased signaling. One of the most promising strategies to expand the repertoire of signaling-selective GPCR activators consists of dualsteric agents, which are hybrid compounds consisting of orthosteric and allosteric pharmacophoric units. This approach proved to be very promising showing several advantages over monovalent targeting strategies, including an increased affinity or selectivity, a bias in signaling pathway activation, reduced off-target activity and therapeutic resistance. Our study focused on the cannabinoid receptor type 2 (CB2R), considered a clinically promising target for the control of brain damage in neurodegenerative disorders. Indeed, CB2R was found highly expressed in microglial cells, astrocytes, and even in some neuron subpopulations. Here, we describe the design, synthesis, and biological evaluation of two new classes of potential dualsteric (bitopic) CB2R ligands. The new compounds were obtained by connecting, through different linkers, the pharmacophoric portion of the CB2R positive allosteric modulator (PAM), EC21a, with that of the CB2R selective orthosteric agonist LV62, both developed in our laboratories. A preliminary screening enabled us to identify compound JR64a as the most promising of the series. Indeed, functional examination highlighted a signaling 'bias' in favor of G protein activation over ßarrestin2 recruitment, combined with high affinity for CB2R and the ability to efficiently prevent inflammation in human microglial cells (HMC3) exposed to LPS/TNFα stimulation, thus demonstrating great promise for the treatment of neurodegenerative diseases.

Pro-Apoptotic Activity of the Marine Sponge Dactylospongia elegans Metabolites Pelorol and 5-epi-Ilimaquinone on Human 501Mel Melanoma Cells.

The natural environment represents an important source of drugs that originates from the terrestrial and, in minority, marine organisms. Indeed, the marine environment represents a largely untapped source in the process of drug discovery. Among all marine organisms, sponges with algae represent the richest source of compounds showing anticancer activity. In this study, the two secondary metabolites pelorol (PEL) and 5-epi-ilimaquinone (EPI), purified from Dactylospongia elegans were investigated for their anti-melanoma activity. PEL and EPI induced cell growth repression of 501Mel melanoma cells in a concentration- and time-dependent manner. A cell cycle block in the G1 phase by PEL and EPI was also observed. Furthermore, PEL and EPI induced significant accumulation of DNA histone fragments in the cytoplasmic fraction, indicating a pro-apoptotic effect of both compounds. At the molecular level, PEL and EPI induced apoptosis through the increase in pro-apoptotic BAX expression, confirmed by the decrease in its silencing miR-214-3p and the decrease in the anti-apoptotic BCL-2, MCL1, and BIRC-5 mRNA expression, attested by the increase in their silencing miRNAs, i.e., miR-193a-3p and miR-16-5p. In conclusion, our data indicate that PEL and EPI exert cytotoxicity activity against 501Mel melanoma cells promoting apoptotic signaling and inducing changes in miRNA expression and their downstream effectors. For these reasons could represent promising lead compounds in the anti-melanoma drug research.

Design, Synthesis, and Biological Activity of New CB2 Receptor Ligands: from Orthosteric and Allosteric Modulators to Dualsteric/Bitopic Ligands.

The design of dualsteric/bitopic agents as single chemical entities able to simultaneously interact with both the orthosteric and an allosteric binding site represents a novel approach in medicinal chemistry. Biased dualsteric/bitopic agents could enhance certain signaling pathways while diminishing the others that cause unwanted side effects. We have designed, synthesized, and functionally characterized the first CB2R heterobivalent bitopic ligands. In contrast to the parent orthosteric compound, our bitopic ligands selectively target CB2R versus CB1R and show a functional selectivity for the cAMP signaling pathway versus ßarrestin2 recruitment. Moreover, the most promising bitopic ligand FD-22a displayed anti-inflammatory activity in a human microglial cell inflammatory model and antinociceptive activity in vivo in an experimental mouse model of neuropathic pain. Finally, computational studies clarified the binding mode of these compounds inside the CB2R, further confirming their bitopic nature.

Nutraceutical Molecules Slow Down Retinal Degeneration, in Tvrm4 Mice a Model of Retinitis Pigmentosa, by Genetic Modulation of Anti-oxidant Pathway.

Rhodopsin (RHO) mutations are responsible for 25-40% of the dominant cases of retinitis pigmentosa (RP) with different severity and progression rates. The Tvrm4 mice, heterozygous for an I307N dominant mutation of RHO, display a normal retinal phenotype when raised in ambient light conditions, but undergo photoreceptor degeneration when briefly exposed to strong white light. Here, The Tvrm4 mice is pre-treated with naringenin 100 mg/kg/die, quercetin 100 mg/kg/die, naringenin 50 + quercercetin 100 mg/kg/die or vehicle dimethyl sulfoxide (DMSO 0.025%) in the drinking water for 35 days. On the 30th day, retinal degeneration was induced by exposure for 1 min to the white light of 12,000 lux intensity, and the treatment was repeated for another 5 days. At the end of the protocol retinal functionality was tested by recording an electroretinogram (ERG). The retinal tissue was collected and was used for further analyses, including immunohistochemically, biochemical, and molecular biology assays. The data obtained show that treatment with nutraceutical molecules is effective in counteracting retinal degeneration by preserving the functionality of photoreceptors and increasing the antioxidant and anti-apoptotic pathways of retinal cells. The present data confirm that nutraceutical molecules are effective in slowing photoreceptor degeneration in a mutation-independent way by modulating the antioxidant response of the retina at the gene expression level.

Pharmacological Activities of Extracts and Compounds Isolated from Mediterranean Sponge Sources.

Marine pharmacology is an exciting and growing discipline that blends blue biotechnology and natural compound pharmacology together. Several sea-derived compounds that are approved on the pharmaceutical market were discovered in sponges, marine organisms that are particularly rich in bioactive metabolites. This paper was specifically aimed at reviewing the pharmacological activities of extracts or purified compounds from marine sponges that were collected in the Mediterranean Sea, one of the most biodiverse marine habitats, filling the gap in the literature about the research of natural products from this geographical area. Findings regarding different Mediterranean sponge species were individuated, reporting consistent evidence of efficacy mainly against cancer, infections, inflammatory, and neurological disorders. The sustainable exploitation of Mediterranean sponges as pharmaceutical sources is strongly encouraged to discover new compounds.

Identification of a Thyroid Hormone Derivative as a Pleiotropic Agent for the Treatment of Alzheimer's Disease.

The identification of effective pharmacological tools for Alzheimer's disease (AD) represents one of the main challenges for therapeutic discovery. Due to the variety of pathological processes associated with AD, a promising route for pharmacological intervention involves the development of new chemical entities that can restore cellular homeostasis. To investigate this strategy, we designed and synthetized SG2, a compound related to the thyroid hormone thyroxine, that shares a pleiotropic activity with its endogenous parent compound, including autophagic flux promotion, neuroprotection, and metabolic reprogramming. We demonstrate herein that SG2 acts in a pleiotropic manner to induce recovery in a C. elegans model of AD based on the overexpression of Aß42 and improves learning abilities in the 5XFAD mouse model of AD. Further, in vitro ADME-Tox profiling and toxicological studies in zebrafish confirmed the low toxicity of this compound, which represents a chemical starting point for AD drug development.

The Role of Cannabinoids in Bone Metabolism: A New Perspective for Bone Disorders.

Novel interest has arisen in recent years regarding bone, which is a very complex and dynamic tissue deputed to several functions ranging from mechanical and protective support to hematopoiesis and calcium homeostasis maintenance. In order to address these tasks, a very refined, continuous remodeling process needs to occur involving the coordinated action of different types of bone cells: osteoblasts (OBs), which have the capacity to produce newly formed bone, and osteoclasts (OCs), which can remove old bone. Bone remodeling is a highly regulated process that requires many hormones and messenger molecules, both at the systemic and the local level. The whole picture is still not fully understood, and the role of novel actors, such as the components of the endocannabinoids system (ECS), including endogenous cannabinoid ligands (ECs), cannabinoid receptors (CBRs), and the enzymes responsible for endogenous ligand synthesis and breakdown, is extremely intriguing. This article reviews the connection between the ECS and skeletal health, supporting the potential use of cannabinoid receptor ligands for the treatment of bone diseases associated with accelerated osteoclastic bone resorption, including osteoporosis and bone metastasis.

The Extra Virgin Olive Oil Polyphenol Oleocanthal Exerts Antifibrotic Effects in the Liver.

Liver fibrosis, which is the outcome of wound-healing response to chronic liver damage, represents an unmet clinical need. This study evaluated the anti-fibrotic and anti-inflammatory effects of the polyphenol oleocanthal (OC) extracted from extra virgin olive oil (EVOO) by an in vitro/in vivo approach. The hepatic cell lines LX2 and HepG2 were used as in vitro models. The mRNA expression of pro-fibrogenic markers, namely alpha-smooth muscle actin (α-SMA), collagen type I alpha 1 chain (COL1A1), a panel of metalloproteinases (MMP1, MMP2, MMP3, MMP7, MMP9) and vascular endothelial growth factor A (VEGFA) as well as the pro-oxidant genes NADPH oxidases (NOXs) 1 and 4 were evaluated in TGF-ß activated LX2 cells by qRT-PCR. α-SMA and COL1A1 protein expression was assessed by immunofluorescence coupled to confocal microscopy. VEGFA release from LX2 was measured by ELISA. We also evaluated the amount of reactive oxygen species (ROS) produced by H2O2 activated- HepG2 cells. In vivo, OC was administered daily by oral gavage to Balb/C mice with CCl4-induced liver fibrosis. In this model, we measured the mRNA hepatic expression of the three pro-inflammatory interleukins (IL) IL6, IL17, IL23, chemokines such as C-C Motif Chemokine Ligand 2 (CCL2) and C-X-C Motif Chemokine Ligand 12 (CXCL12), and selected miRNAs (miR-181-5p, miR-221-3p, miR-29b-3p and miR-101b-3p) by qRT-PCR. We demonstrated that OC significantly downregulated the gene/protein expression of α-SMA, COL1A1, MMP2, MMP3, MMP7 and VEGF as well as the oxidative enzymes NOX1 and 4 in TGFß1-activated LX2 cells, and reduced the production of ROS by HepG2. In vivo OC, beside causing a significant reduction of fibrosis at histological assessment, counteracted the CCl4-induced upregulation of pro-fibrotic and inflammatory genes. Moreover, OC upregulated the anti-fibrotic miRNAs (miR-29b-3p and miR-101b-3p) reduced in fibrotic mice, while downregulated the pro-fibrotic miRNAs (miR-221-3p and miR-181-5p), which were dramatically upregulated in fibrotic mice. In conclusion, OC exerts a promising antifibrotic effect via a combined reduction of oxidative stress and inflammation involving putative miRNAs, which in turn reduces hepatic stellate cells activation and liver fibrosis.

Delivery of Thyronamines (TAMs) to the Brain: A Preliminary Study.

Recent reports highlighted the significant neuroprotective effects of thyronamines (TAMs), a class of endogenous thyroid hormone derivatives. In particular, 3-iodothyronamine (T1AM) has been shown to play a pleiotropic role in neurodegeneration by modulating energy metabolism and neurological functions in mice. However, the pharmacological response to T1AM might be influenced by tissue metabolism, which is known to convert T1AM into its catabolite 3-iodothyroacetic acid (TA1). Currently, several research groups are investigating the pharmacological effects of T1AM systemic administration in the search of novel therapeutic approaches for the treatment of interlinked pathologies, such as metabolic and neurodegenerative diseases (NDDs). A critical aspect in the development of new drugs for NDDs is to know their distribution in the brain, which is fundamentally related to their ability to cross the blood-brain barrier (BBB). To this end, in the present study we used the immortalized mouse brain endothelial cell line bEnd.3 to develop an in vitro model of BBB and evaluate T1AM and TA1 permeability. Both drugs, administered at 1 µM dose, were assayed by high-performance liquid chromatography coupled to mass spectrometry. Our results indicate that T1AM is able to efficiently cross the BBB, whereas TA1 is almost completely devoid of this property.