Dynamics of Antimicrobial Resistance Carriage in Koalas (Phascolarctos Cinereus) and Pteropid Bats (Pteropus Poliocephalus) Before, During and After Wildfires.

In the 2019-2020 summer, wildfires decimated the Australian bush environment and impacted wildlife species, including koalas (Phascolarctos cinereus) and grey headed flying fox pups (Pteropid bats, Pteropus poliocephalus). Consequently, hundreds of koalas and thousands of bat pups entered wildlife hospitals with fire-related injuries/illness, where some individuals received antimicrobial therapy. This study investigated the dynamics of antimicrobial resistance (AMR) in pre-fire, fire-affected and post-fire koalas and Pteropid bat pups. PCR and DNA sequencing were used to screen DNA samples extracted from faeces (koalas and bats) and cloacal swabs (koalas) for class 1 integrons, a genetic determinant of AMR, and to identify integron-associated antibiotic resistance genes. Class 1 integrons were detected in 25.5% of koalas (68 of 267) and 59.4% of bats (92 of 155). Integrons contained genes conferring resistance to aminoglycosides, trimethoprim and beta-lactams. Samples were also screened for blaTEM (beta-lactam) resistance genes, which were detected in 2.6% of koalas (7 of 267) and 25.2% of bats (39 of 155). Integron occurrence was significantly higher in fire-affected koalas in-care compared to wild pre-fire koalas (P < 0.0001). Integron and blaTEM occurrence were not significantly different in fire-affected bats compared to pre-fire bats (P > 0.05), however, their occurrence was significantly higher in fire-affected bats in-care compared to wild fire-affected bats (P < 0.0001 and P = 0.0488 respectively). The observed shifts of AMR dynamics in wildfire-impacted species flags the need for judicious antibiotic use when treating fire-affected wildlife to minimise unwanted selective pressure and negative treatment outcomes associated with carriage of resistance genes and antibiotic resistant bacteria.

Carriage of antibiotic resistance genes to treatments for chlamydial disease in koalas (Phascolarctos cinereus): A comparison of occurrence before and during catastrophic wildfires.

Growing reports of diverse antibiotic resistance genes in wildlife species around the world symbolises the extent of this global One Health issue. The health of wildlife is threatened by antimicrobial resistance in situations where wildlife species develop disease and require antibiotics. Chlamydial disease is a key threat for koalas in Australia, with infected koalas frequently entering wildlife hospitals and requiring antibiotic therapy, typically with chloramphenicol or doxycycline. This study investigated the occurrence and diversity of target chloramphenicol and doxycycline resistance genes (cat and tet respectively) in koala urogenital and faecal microbiomes. DNA was extracted from 394 urogenital swabs and 91 faecal swabs collected from koalas in mainland Australia and on Kangaroo Island (KI) located 14 km off the mainland, before (n = 145) and during (n = 340) the 2019-2020 wildfires. PCR screening and DNA sequencing determined 9.9% of samples (95%CI: 7.5% to 12.9%) carried cat and/or tet genes, with the highest frequency in fire-affected KI koalas (16.8%) and the lowest in wild KI koalas sampled prior to fires (6.5%). The diversity of cat and tet was greater in fire-affected koalas (seven variants detected), compared to pre-fire koalas (two variants detected). Fire-affected koalas in care that received antibiotics had a significantly higher proportion (p < 0.05) of cat and/or tet genes (37.5%) compared to koalas that did not receive antibiotics (9.8%). Of the cat and/or tet positive mainland koalas, 50.0% were Chlamydia-positive by qPCR test. Chloramphenicol and doxycycline resistance genes in koala microbiomes may contribute to negative treatment outcomes for koalas receiving anti-chlamydial antibiotics. Thus a secondary outcome of wildfires is increased risk of acquisition of cat and tet genes in fire-affected koalas that enter care, potentially exacerbating the already significant threat of chlamydial disease on Australia's koalas. This study highlights the importance of considering impacts to wildlife health within the One Health approach to AMR and identifies a need for greater understanding of AMR ecology in wildlife.

Characterisation of typical enteropathogenic Escherichia coli (tEPEC) lineages and novel bfpA variants detected in Australian fruit bats (Pteropus poliocephalus).

Enteropathogenic Escherichia coli (EPEC) is an important cause of diarrhoeal disease in human infants. EPEC strains are defined by the presence of specific virulence factors including intimin (encoded by the eae gene) and bundle forming pili (Bfp). Bfp is encoded by the bfp operon and includes the bfpA gene for the major pilus subunit. By definition, Bfp are only present in typical EPEC (tEPEC), for which, humans are considered to be the only known natural host. This study detected tEPEC in faecal samples from a wild Australian fruit bat species, the grey-headed flying-fox (Pteropus poliocephalus). Whole genome sequencing of 61 E. coli isolates from flying-foxes revealed that 21.3 % (95%CI: 13 %-33 %) were tEPEC. Phylogenetic analyses showed flying-fox tEPEC shared evolutionary lineages with human EPEC, but were predominantly novel sequence types (9 of 13) and typically harboured novel bfpA variants (11 of 13). HEp-2 cell adhesion assays showed adherence to human-derived epithelial cells by all 13 flying-fox tEPEC, indicating that they all carried functional Bfp. Using an EPEC-specific duplex PCR, it was determined that tEPEC comprised 17.4 % (95%CI: 13 %-22 %) of 270 flying-fox E. coli isolates. Furthermore, a tEPEC-specific multiplex PCR detected the eae and bfpA virulence genes in 18.0 % (95%CI: 8.0 %-33.7 %) of 506 flying-fox faecal DNA samples, with occurrences ranging from 1.3 % to 87.0 % across five geographic areas sampled over a four-year period. The identification of six novel tEPEC sequence types and five novel bfpA variants suggests flying-foxes carry bat-specific tEPEC lineages. However, their close relationship with human EPEC and functional Bfp, indicates that flying-fox tEPEC have zoonotic potential and that dissemination of flying-fox tEPEC into urban environments may pose a public health risk. The consistent detection of tEPEC in flying-foxes over extensive geographical and temporal scales indicates that both wild grey-headed flying-foxes and humans should be regarded as natural tEPEC hosts.

Maternal mind-mindedness over infants' first three months.

Maternal mind-mindedness refers to mothers' ability to reflect upon their infants' mental states and respond appropriately. The present study assessed mind-mindedness longitudinally from the newborn period to the infant age of three months. The study is the first to assess maternal mind-mindedness in the infant's early life prior to three months (one week, one month, two months, three months). To measure maternal mind-mindedness, mothers' speech to their infants is coded for mental state comments about the infants' thoughts, desires, and emotions. Appropriate mind-minded comments are judged to accurately reflect the infants' mental states; non-attuned mind-minded comments are judged to misinterpret the infants' mental states. Mothers' individual stability (rank order stability) and group level continuity (mean level of stability across the infant ages) were assessed. Mothers showed modest temporal stability in both appropriate and non-attuned mind-mindedness over the infants' first three months. The continuity of mind-mindedness showed that appropriate mind-mindedness increased over the infant ages, but non-attuned mind-mindedness showed no change. In infants' early lives, mothers' ability to accurately interpret their infants' mental states is enhanced as the mother-infant relationship develops and infants become more communicative partners.

Influences of infants' and mothers' contingent vocal responsiveness on young infants' vocal social bids in the Still Face Task.

Infants' social bids in the still face phase of the Still Face Task demonstrate their emerging sense of self agency as these behaviors happen in the absence of the partner's social overtures. The study examined the role of infants' contingent responsiveness to their mothers in social interactions on their social bidding to the mother when she becomes unresponsive. Social bids are non-distress vocalizations or smiles while looking at the unresponsive partner. Infants and their mothers longitudinally engaged in the Still Face Task when infants were one, two, and three months. At two months, infant non-distress vocalizations and smiles and contingent vocal and smiling responsiveness increased in the initial interactive phase and vocal and smile social bids increased in the still face phase. Infant contingent vocal responsiveness predicted infant vocal social bids but infant contingent smiling responsiveness did not predict infant smile social bids. Infant contingent vocal responsiveness was a stronger predictor than infant non-distress vocalizations per se of infant vocal social bids at two and three months. However, maternal contingent vocal responsiveness was the primary predictor of infant vocal social bids at these ages. Maternal contingent responsiveness to infant behavior allows infants to sense their agency in affecting their mothers' behavior. Yet infants are active participants, becoming contingently responsive to their mothers, which facilitates their awareness that they are effective agents in instigating social interaction, as demonstrated by social bids.

High Prevalence of Beta-Lactam-Resistant Escherichia coli in South Australian Grey-Headed Flying Fox Pups (Pteropus poliocephalus).

The emergence of antimicrobial-resistant Escherichia coli in wildlife is concerning-especially resistance to clinically important beta-lactam antibiotics. Wildlife in closer proximity to humans, including in captivity and in rescue/rehabilitation centres, typically have a higher prevalence of antimicrobial-resistant E. coli compared to their free-living counterparts. Each year, several thousand Australian fruit bat pups, including the grey-headed flying fox (GHFF; Pteropus poliocephalus), require rescuing and are taken into care by wildlife rescue and rehabilitation groups. To determine the prevalence of beta-lactam-resistant E. coli in rescued GHFF pups from South Australia, faecal samples were collected from 53 pups in care. A combination of selective culture, PCR, antimicrobial susceptibility testing, whole-genome sequencing, and phylogenetic analysis was used to identify and genetically characterise beta-lactam-resistant E. coli isolates. The prevalence of amoxicillin-, amoxicillin-plus-clavulanic-acid-, and cephalosporin-resistant E. coli in the 53 pups was 77.4% (n = 41), 24.5% (n = 13), and 11.3% (n = 6), respectively. GHFF beta-lactam-resistant E. coli also carried resistance genes to aminoglycosides, trimethoprim plus sulphonamide, and tetracyclines in 37.7% (n = 20), 35.8% (n = 19), and 26.4% (n = 14) of the 53 GHFF pups, respectively, and 50.9% (n = 27) of pups carried multidrug-resistant E. coli. Twelve E. coli strain types were identified from the 53 pups, with six strains having extraintestinal pathogenic traits, indicating that they have the potential to cause blood, lung, or wound infections in GHFFs. Two lineages-E. coli ST963 and ST58 O8:H25-were associated with human extraintestinal infections. Phylogenetic analyses determined that all 12 strains were lineages associated with humans and/or domestic animals. This study demonstrates high transmission of anthropogenic-associated beta-lactam-resistant E. coli to GHFF pups entering care. Importantly, we identified potential health risks to GHFF pups and zoonotic risks for their carers, highlighting the need for improved antibiotic stewardship and biosafety measures for GHFF pups entering care.

Implications of Escherichia coli community diversity in free-ranging Australian pinniped pups.

Escherichia coli is a widely studied bacterium, commonly used as an indicator of faecal contamination. Investigations into the structure and diversity of E. coli in free-ranging wildlife species has been limited. The objective of this study was to characterise intra-individual and inter-species E. coli phylotype and B2 sub-type diversity in free-ranging Australian pinniped pups, to determine whether a single E. coli colony is representative of the phylotype and B2 sub-type diversity in these hosts. Faecal samples were collected from free-ranging Australian fur seal (Arctocephalus pusillus doriferus), Australian sea lion (Neophoca cinerea) and long-nosed fur seal (Arctocephalus forsteri) pups from three breeding colonies between 2018 and 2021. Faecal swabs from thirty randomly selected pups (n = 10 from each species) were cultured and ten E. coli colonies were selected from each culture based on morphology and separation between colonies on agar plates. Molecular screening techniques were utilised to assign isolates to phylotypes and B2 sub-types. There was no significant difference (p > 0.05) in either intra-individual or inter-species E. coli phylotype and B2 sub-type diversity. The B2 phylotype was the most dominant, with 78% of isolates (n = 234) assigned to this phylotype. Host factors (species, weight [kg] and standard length [cm]) did not significantly affect phylotype diversity. The absence of intra-individual and inter-species differences in E. coli diversity at a phylotype level suggests that a single E. coli colony could be used as an indicator of overall diversity of E. coli at a phylotype level in A. p. doriferus, N. cinerea and A. forsteri pups. These findings can be used to simplify and improve the efficiency of sampling protocols for ongoing monitoring of human-associated E. coli phylotypes in free-ranging pinniped populations.

Transmission of Klebsiella strains and plasmids within and between grey-headed flying fox colonies.

The grey-headed flying fox (Pteropus poliocephalus) is an endemic Australian fruit bat, known to carry zoonotic pathogens. We recently showed they harbour bacterial pathogen Klebsiella pneumoniae and closely related species in the K. pneumoniae species complex (KpSC); however, the dynamics of KpSC transmission and gene flow within flying fox colonies are poorly understood. High-resolution genome comparisons of 39 KpSC isolates from grey-headed flying foxes identified five putative strain transmission clusters (four intra- and one inter-colony). The instance of inter-colony strain transmission of K. africana was found between two flying fox populations within flying distance, indicating either direct or indirect transmission through a common food/water source. All 11 plasmids identified within the KpSC isolates showed 73% coverage (mean) and ≥95% identity to human-associated KpSC plasmids, indicating gene flow between human clinical and grey-headed flying fox isolates. Along with strain transmission, inter-species horizontal plasmid transmission between K. pneumoniae and Klebsiella africana was also identified within a flying fox colony. Finally, genome-scale metabolic models were generated to predict and compare substrate usage to previously published KpSC models, from human and environmental sources. These models indicated no distinction on the basis of metabolic capabilities. Instead, metabolic capabilities were consistent with population structure and ST/lineage.

Carriage of antibiotic resistant bacteria in endangered and declining Australian pinniped pups.

The rapid emergence of antimicrobial resistance (AMR) is a major concern for wildlife and ecosystem health globally. Genetic determinants of AMR have become indicators of anthropogenic pollution due to their greater association with humans and rarer presence in environments less affected by humans. The objective of this study was to determine the distribution and frequency of the class 1 integron, a genetic determinant of AMR, in both the faecal microbiome and in Escherichia coli isolated from neonates of three pinniped species. Australian sea lion (Neophoca cinerea), Australian fur seal (Arctocephalus pusillus doriferus) and long-nosed fur seal (Arctocephalus forsteri) pups from eight breeding colonies along the Southern Australian coast were sampled between 2016-2019. DNA from faecal samples (n = 309) and from E. coli (n = 795) isolated from 884 faecal samples were analysed for class 1 integrons using PCRs targeting the conserved integrase gene (intI) and the gene cassette array. Class 1 integrons were detected in A. p. doriferus and N. cinerea pups sampled at seven of the eight breeding colonies investigated in 4.85% of faecal samples (n = 15) and 4.52% of E. coli isolates (n = 36). Integrons were not detected in any A. forsteri samples. DNA sequencing of the class 1 integron gene cassette array identified diverse genes conferring resistance to four antibiotic classes. The relationship between class 1 integron carriage and the concentration of five trace elements and heavy metals was also investigated, finding no significant association. The results of this study add to the growing evidence of the extent to which antimicrobial resistant bacteria are polluting the marine environment. As AMR determinants are frequently associated with bacterial pathogens, their occurrence suggests that these pinniped species are vulnerable to potential health risks. The implications for individual and population health as a consequence of AMR carriage is a critical component of ongoing health investigations.

Gut microbiota of endangered Australian sea lion pups is unchanged by topical ivermectin treatment for endemic hookworm infection.

The gut microbiota is essential for the development and maintenance of the hosts' immune system. Disturbances to the gut microbiota in early life stages can result in long-lasting impacts on host health. This study aimed to determine if topical ivermectin treatment for endemic hookworm (Uncinaria sanguinis) infection in endangered Australian sea lion (Neophoca cinerea) pups resulted in gut microbial changes. The gut microbiota was characterised for untreated (control) (n = 23) and treated (n = 23) Australian sea lion pups sampled during the 2019 and 2020/21 breeding seasons at Seal Bay, Kangaroo Island. Samples were collected pre- and post-treatment on up to four occasions over a four-to-five-month period. The gut microbiota of untreated (control) and treated pups in both seasons was dominated by five bacterial phyla, Fusobacteria, Firmicutes, Proteobacteria, Actinobacteria and Bacteroidetes. A significant difference in alpha diversity between treatment groups was seen in pups sampled during the 2020/21 breeding season (p = 0.008), with higher richness and diversity in treated pups. Modelling the impact of individual pup identification (ID), capture, pup weight (kg), standard length (cm), age and sex on beta diversity revealed that pup ID accounted for most of the variation (35% in 2019 and 42% in 2020/21), with pup ID, capture, and age being the only significant contributors to microbial variation (p < 0.05). There were no statistically significant differences in the composition of the microbiota between treatment groups in both the 2019 and 2020/21 breeding seasons, indicating that topical ivermectin treatment did not alter the composition of the gut microbiota. To our knowledge, this is the first study to characterise the gut microbiota of free-ranging Australian pinniped pups, compare the composition across multiple time points, and to consider the impact of parasitic treatment on overall diversity and microbial composition of the gut microbiota. Importantly, the lack of compositional changes in the gut microbiota with treatment support the utility of topical ivermectin as a safe and minimally invasive management strategy to enhance pup survival in this endangered species.

Novel strains of Klebsiella africana and Klebsiella pneumoniae in Australian fruit bats (Pteropus poliocephalus).

Over the past decade human associated multidrug resistant (MDR) and hypervirulent Klebsiella pneumoniae lineages have been increasingly detected in wildlife. This study investigated the occurrence of K. pneumoniae species complex (KpSC) in grey-headed flying foxes (GHFF), an Australian fruit bat. Thirty-nine KpSC isolates were cultured from 275 GHFF faecal samples (14.2%), comprising K. pneumoniae (n = 30), Klebsiella africana (n = 8) and Klebsiella variicola subsp. variicola (n = 1). The majority (79.5%) of isolates belonged to novel sequence types (ST), including two novel K. africana STs. This is the first report of K. africana outside of Africa and in a non-human host. A minority (15.4%) of GHFF KpSC isolates shared STs with human clinical K. pneumoniae strains, of which, none belonged to MDR clonal lineages that cause frequent nosocomial outbreaks, and no isolates were characterised as hypervirulent. The occurrence of KpSC isolates carrying acquired antimicrobial resistance genes in GHFF was low (1.1%), with three K. pneumoniae isolates harbouring both fluoroquinolone and trimethoprim resistance genes. This study indicates that GHFF are not reservoirs for MDR and hypervirulent KpSC strains, but they do carry novel K. africana lineages. Health risks associated with KpSC carriage by GHFF are deemed low for the public and GHFF.

Testudines as Sentinels for Monitoring the Dissemination of Antibiotic Resistance in Marine Environments: An Integrative Review.

Dissemination of antibiotic resistance (AR) in marine environments is a global concern with a propensity to affect public health and many ecosystems worldwide. We evaluated the use of sea turtles as sentinel species for monitoring AR in marine environments. In this field, antibiotic-resistant bacteria have been commonly identified by using standard culture and sensitivity tests, leading to an overrepresentation of specific, culturable bacterial classes in the available literature. AR was detected against all major antibiotic classes, but the highest cumulative global frequency of resistance in all represented geographical sites was against the beta-lactam class by a two-fold difference compared to all other antibiotics. Wastewater facilities and turtle rehabilitation centres were associated with higher incidences of multidrug-resistant bacteria (MDRB) accounting for an average of 58% and 49% of resistant isolates, respectively. Furthermore, a relatively similar prevalence of MDRB was seen in all studied locations. These data suggest that anthropogenically driven selection pressures for the development of AR in sea turtles and marine environments are relatively similar worldwide. There is a need, however, to establish direct demonstrable associations between AR in sea turtles in their respective marine environments with wastewater facilities and other anthropogenic activities worldwide.

Characterization of beta-lactam-resistant Escherichia coli from Australian fruit bats indicates anthropogenic origins.

Antimicrobial-resistant Escherichia coli, particularly those resistant to critically important antimicrobials, are increasingly reported in wildlife. The dissemination of antimicrobial-resistant bacteria to wildlife indicates the far-reaching impact of selective pressures imposed by humans on bacteria through misuse of antimicrobials. The grey-headed flying fox (GHFF; Pteropus poliocephalus), a fruit bat endemic to eastern Australia, commonly inhabits urban environments and encounters human microbial pollution. To determine if GHFF have acquired human-associated bacteria, faecal samples from wild GHFF (n=287) and captive GHFF undergoing rehabilitation following illness or injury (n=31) were cultured to detect beta-lactam-resistant E. coli. Antimicrobial susceptibility testing, PCR and whole genome sequencing were used to determine phenotypic and genotypic antimicrobial resistance profiles, strain type and virulence factor profiles. Overall, 3.8 % of GHFF carried amoxicillin-resistant E. coli (wild 3.5 % and captive 6.5 %), with 38.5 % of the 13 GHFF E. coli isolates exhibiting multidrug resistance. Carbapenem (blaNDM-5) and fluoroquinolone resistance were detected in one E. coli isolate, and two isolates were resistant to third-generation cephalosporins (blaCTX-M-27 and ampC). Resistance to tetracycline and trimethoprim plus sulfamethoxazole were detected in 69.2% and 30.8 % of isolates respectively. Class 1 integrons, a genetic determinant of resistance, were detected in 38.5 % of isolates. Nine of the GHFF isolates (69.2 %) harboured extraintestinal virulence factors. Phylogenetic analysis placed the 13 GHFF isolates in lineages associated with humans and/or domestic animals. Three isolates were human-associated extraintestinal pathogenic E. coli (ST10 O89:H9, ST73 and ST394) and seven isolates belonged to lineages associated with extraintestinal disease in both humans and domestic animals (ST88, ST117, ST131, ST155 complex, ST398 and ST1850). This study provides evidence of anthropogenic multidrug-resistant and pathogenic E. coli transmission to wildlife, further demonstrating the necessity for incorporating wildlife surveillance within the One Health approach to managing antimicrobial resistance.

Into the sea: Antimicrobial resistance determinants in the microbiota of little penguins (Eudyptula minor).

Terrestrial and aquatic birds have been proposed as sentinels for the spread of antimicrobial resistant bacteria, but few species have been investigated specifically in the context of AMR in the marine ecosystem. This study contrasts the occurrence of class 1 integrons and associated antimicrobial resistance genes in wild and captive little penguins (Eudyptula minor), an Australian seabird with local population declines. PCR screening of faecal samples (n = 448) revealed a significant difference in the prevalence of class 1 integrons in wild and captive groups, 3.2% and 44.7% respectively, with genes that confer resistance to streptomycin, spectinomycin, trimethoprim and multidrug efflux pumps detected. Class 1 integrons were not detected in two clinically relevant bacterial species, Klebsiella pneumoniae or Escherichia coli, isolated from penguin faeces. The presence of class 1 integrons in the little penguin supports the use of marine birds as sentinels of AMR in marine environments.

Risk assessment of SARS-CoV-2 in Antarctic wildlife.

The coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic is caused by the severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2). This pathogen has spread rapidly across the world, causing high numbers of deaths and significant social and economic impacts. SARS-CoV-2 is a novel coronavirus with a suggested zoonotic origin with the potential for cross-species transmission among animals. Antarctica can be considered the only continent free of SARS-CoV-2. Therefore, concerns have been expressed regarding the potential human introduction of this virus to the continent through the activities of research or tourism to minimise the effects on human health, and the potential for virus transmission to Antarctic wildlife. We assess the reverse-zoonotic transmission risk to Antarctic wildlife by considering the available information on host susceptibility, dynamics of the infection in humans, and contact interactions between humans and Antarctic wildlife. The environmental conditions in Antarctica seem to be favourable for the virus stability. Indoor spaces such as those at research stations, research vessels or tourist cruise ships could allow for more transmission among humans and depending on their movements between different locations the virus could be spread across the continent. Among Antarctic wildlife previous in silico analyses suggested that cetaceans are at greater risk of infection whereas seals and birds appear to be at a low infection risk. However, caution needed until further research is carried out and consequently, the precautionary principle should be applied. Field researchers handling animals are identified as the human group posing the highest risk of transmission to animals while tourists and other personnel pose a significant risk only when in close proximity (< 5 m) to Antarctic fauna. We highlight measures to reduce the risk as well as identify of knowledge gaps related to this issue.

Mother-Infant Skin-to-Skin Contact: Short- and Long-Term Effects for Mothers and Their Children Born Full-Term.

This brief report reviews findings from a longitudinal study of skin-to-skin contact (SSC) with mothers and full-term infants and a follow-up study of these dyads when the children were 9 years. Findings infer the positive influence of SSC on mother-child interactions in infancy and into children's middle childhood. Mothers and infants in SSC and control groups were seen when infants were 1 week, 1 month, 2 months, and 3 months. SSC group mothers reported fewer depressive symptoms in infants' early weeks and had a greater reduction in salivary cortisol, a physiological stress indicator, in infants' first month (Bigelow et al., 2012). SSC group mothers who initially chose to breastfeed continued to breastfeed their infants throughout the 3 months, whereas breastfeeding mothers in the control group declined over the visits (Bigelow et al., 2014). When engaged in the Still Face Task with their mothers, SSC group infants showed the still face effect with their affect at 1 month, a month before the control group infants did so (Bigelow and Power, 2012). At 3 months, SSC group infants were social bidding to their mothers during the still face phase. When the children were 9 years, the mother-child dyads engaged in conversations about the children's remembered emotional events (Bigelow et al., 2018). Mother-child dyads who had been in the SSC group showed more engagement and reciprocity in the conversations than mother-child dyads who had been in the control group. Oxytocin, which is induced by SSC, is hypothesized to be an underlying factor that helped the mother-infant relationship have a positive trajectory with long-term benefits.

Cryptosporidium and Giardia in feral water buffalo (Bubalus bubalis) in the South East Arnhem Land Indigenous Protected Area, Australia.

Global investigations have implicated water buffalo (Bubalus bubalis) as a potential source of zoonotic Cryptosporidium and Giardia parasites which may pose a threat to human health. In Australia, buffalo are a feral pest that have colonised the floodplains, wetlands and woodlands of Indigenous owned and managed Arnhem Land, in tropical monsoonal Northern Australia. Indigenous people from the remote community Ngukurr have raised concerns about the potential threat to their health from shared use of surface waters inhabited by buffalo, in the South East Arnhem Land Indigenous Protected Area (SEAL IPA), Northern Australia. Surface waters are valued by local Indigenous people for spiritual and customary reasons, bush foods, medicines and drinking water. Here, we used molecular methods to characterise Cryptosporidium spp. and Giardia duodenalis assemblages from feral water buffalo living in the SEAL IPA to determine potential zoonotic risks to health of Indigenous people through co-use of surface water billabongs. Buffalo faecal DNA was screened for Cryptosporidium and Giardia using the 18S rRNA gene. Giardia were also screened using Glutamate hydrogenase (gdh) and ßeta-giardin (ß-giardin) genes. DNA sequencing identified C. ryanae in 9.9% (31/313) and G. duodenalis assemblage E 1.9% (6/313) in buffalo. Cryptosporidium ryanae is not considered zoonotic and G. duodenalis assemblage E is a livestock assemblage that has been reported in humans. Carriage of G. duodenalis assemblage E in buffalo may present a disease risk for Indigenous people utilising billabongs, according to customary practice.

The effect of mother-infant skin-to-skin contact on Ghanaian infants' response to the Still Face Task: Comparison between Ghanaian and Canadian mother-infant dyads.

The effect of mother-infant skin-to-skin contact on Ghanaian infants' developing social expectations for maternal behavior was investigated. Infants with high and low mother-infant skin-to-skin contact experience in the infants' first month engaged with their mothers in a Still Face Task at 6 weeks of age. Infants with high skin-to-skin contact experience, but not those with low skin-to-skin contact experience, demonstrated the still face effect with their smiles. Infants with both high and low skin-to-skin contact experience demonstrated the still face effect with their visual attention. The behaviors of the Ghanaian infants and their mothers during the task were compared to archival evidence of Canadian mother-infant dyads' behaviors in skin-to-skin and control groups who engaged in the Still Face Task at the infant ages of 1 and 2 months. Similarities and differences between the behaviors of the mother-infant dyads in the two cultures were assessed.

Molecular investigation of Hepatocystis parasites in the Australian flying fox Pteropus poliocephalus across its distribution range.

Phylogenetic inference of Hepatocystis, a haemosporidian parasite of diverse primate and bat hosts, revealed that the parasites from Australasian Pteropus bat species form a distinct clade to all other Hepatocystis parasites from Africa and Asia. Here, we investigate the phylogenetic placement of Hepatocystis in the Australian bat Pteropus poliocephalus for the first time and examine parasite morphology and prevalence from selected points across its range. Hepatocystis infections were detected in low prevalences in P. poliocephalus in contrast to high numbers in P. alecto and P. scapulatus. The prevalence in P. poliocephalus varied across its distribution range with 15% in the central biogeographic areas (central Queensland and New South Wales) and 1% in the southern-most edge (South Australia) of its range. Sequencing of five genes revealed high genetic similarity in Hepatocystis of P. poliocephalus independent of sampling location. Phylogenetic analysis placed these parasites with Hepatocystis from other Pteropus species from Australia and Asia. While numerous haplotypes were identified among sequences from the Pteropus hosts, no patterns of host specificity were recovered within the Pteropus-specific parasite group.

Bats as reservoirs of antibiotic resistance determinants: A survey of class 1 integrons in Grey-headed Flying Foxes (Pteropus poliocephalus).

Increasing reports of antimicrobial resistance in wildlife highlight the significance of a One Health approach to managing resistance. We investigated the prevalence and diversity of class 1 integrons, a genetic determinant of resistance, in grey-headed flying foxes, a large fruit bat species belonging to the order Chiroptera. Class 1 integrons were detected in both wild flying foxes (5.3%) and captive flying foxes (41.2%) housed in wildlife rehabilitation facilities. Genes encoding resistance to aminoglycosides, trimethoprim and beta-lactams, and Qac efflux pumps were detected. Analysis of conserved integron elements and gene cassette arrays indicate the direction of integron transfer is from humans to flying foxes. The detection of two novel gene cassette arrays (5'CS-qacH-aacA34-blaOXA-21-3'CS and 5'CS-qacF-3'CS strongly suggests acquisition of genes from the environmental resistome into class 1 integrons within the flying fox microbiota. The dynamics of class 1 integrons in flying foxes indicates bats have a role in the emergence of novel antibiotic resistance determinants.