Determinants of Subjective Social Status and Health Among Latin American Women Immigrants in Spain: A Qualitative Approach.

This qualitative study was carried out to better understand factors that determine the subjective social status of Latin Americans in Spain. The study was conducted following a theoretical framework and forms part of broader study on subjective social status and health. Ten immigrant participants engaged in semi-structured interviews, from which data were collected. The study results show that socioeconomic aspects of the crisis and of policies adopted have shaped immigrant living conditions in Spain. Four major themes that emerged from the analysis were related to non-recognition of educational credentials, precarious working conditions, unemployment and loneliness. These results illustrate the outcomes of current policies on health and suggest a need for health professionals to orient practices toward social determinants, thus utilizing evaluations of subjective social status to reduce inequalities in health.

Relationship between subjective social status and perceived health among Latin American immigrant women / Relação entre status social subjetivo e saúde percebida entre mulheres imigrantes latino-americanas / Relacion entre el estatus social subjetivo y la salud percibida entre mujeres inmigrantes latinoamericanas

OBJECTIVE: to explore the relationship between socioeconomic status and subjective social status and explain how subjective social status predicts health in immigrant women. METHODS: cross-sectional study based on data from 371 Latin American women (16-65 years old) from a total of 7,056 registered immigrants accesse through community parthers between 2009-2010. Socioeconomic status was measured through education, income and occupation; subjective social status was measured using the MacArthur Scale, and perceived health, using a Likert scale. RESULTS: a weak correlation between socioeconomic and subjective social status was found. In the bivariate analysis, a significantly higher prevalence of negative perceived health in women with no education, low income, undocumented employment was observed. In the multivariate analysis, higher odds of prevalence of negative perceptions of health in the lower levels of the MacArthur scale were observed. No significant differences with the rest of the variables were found. CONCLUSIONS: the study suggests that subjective social status was a better predictor of health status than the socioeconomic status measurements. Therefore, the use of this measurement may be relevant to the study of health inequalities, particularly in socially disadvantaged groups such as immigrants. .

OBJETIVO: explorar a relação entre nível socieconômico e status social subjetivo e explicar como o status social subjetivo prediz a saúde em mulheres imigrantes. MÉTODOS: estudo transversal com observações baseadas em 371 mulheres latino-americanas (16-65 anos) de um total de 7.056 registradas, recrutadas por meio de parcerias entre os anos 2009 e 2010. O nível socioeconômico foi mensurado por meio de escolaridade, renda e profissão; o status social subjetivo foi mensurado utilizando-se a Escala MacArthur, e a saúde percebida, usando-se uma escala tipo Likert. RESULTADOS: encontrou-se fraca correlação entre o nível socioeconômico e o status social subjetivo. Na análise bivariada, observou-se prevalência significativamente mais alta de saúde percebida negativamente em mulheres sem escolaridade, baixa renda, desempregadas e com emprego informal. Na análise multivariada, observaram-se maiores chances de prevalência de saúde percebida negativamente, nos níveis mais baixos da escala MacArthur. Não foram encontradas diferenças significativas nas demais variáveis. CONCLUSÕES: o estudo sugere que o status social subjetivo foi um melhor preditor de status de saúde do que as mensurações de status econômico. Portanto, o uso dessa medida pode ser relevante para o estudo das desigualdades em saúde, particularmente nos grupos em desvantagem social, como os imigrantes. .

OBJETIVO: explorar la relación entre el estatus socioeconómico y el estatus social subjetivo y explicar en qué medida el estatus social subjetivo predice la salud en mujeres inmigrantes. MÉTODOS: estudio transversal. Observaciones basadas en 371 latinoamericanas (16-65 años) de un total de 7.056 empadronadas, captadas a través de asociaciones entre 2009-2010. El estatus socioeconómico se midió a través de educación, ingresos y ocupación; el estatus social subjetivo usando la Escala MacArthur; y la salud percibida mediante una escala de likert. RESULTADOS: se encontró una correlación débil entre el estatus socioeconómico y el social subjetivo. En el análisis bivariante se observó significativamente una prevalencia mayor de salud percibida negativa en las mujeres sin estudios, con ingresos bajos, desempleadas e indocumentadas. En el análisis multivariante, se observaron Odds de prevalencia de salud percibida negativa más elevadas en los niveles de la escala MacArthur más bajos. No se observaron diferencias significativas con el resto de las variables. CONCLUSIONES: el estudio sugiere que el estatus social subjetivo es un predictor mejor del estado de salud que las medidas del estatus socioeconómico. Por tanto, el uso de esta medida puede ser relevante para el estudio de las desigualdades en salud, particularmente en los grupos en desventaja social como los inmigrantes. .

Relationship between subjective social status and perceived health among Latin American immigrant women.

OBJECTIVE: to explore the relationship between socioeconomic status and subjective social status and explain how subjective social status predicts health in immigrant women. METHODS: cross-sectional study based on data from 371 Latin American women (16-65 years old) from a total of 7,056 registered immigrants accessed through community partners between 2009-2010. Socioeconomic status was measured through education, income and occupation; subjective social status was measured using the MacArthur Scale, and perceived health, using a Likert scale. RESULTS: a weak correlation between socioeconomic and subjective social status was found. In the bivariate analysis, a significantly higher prevalence of negative perceived health in women with no education, low income, undocumented employment was observed. In the multivariate analysis, higher odds of prevalence of negative perceptions of health in the lower levels of the MacArthur scale were observed. No significant differences with the rest of the variables were found. CONCLUSIONS: the study suggests that subjective social status was a better predictor of health status than the socioeconomic status measurements. Therefore, the use of this measurement may be relevant to the study of health inequalities, particularly in socially disadvantaged groups such as immigrants.

[Meteorological variables do not explain the North-South gradient in mortality from multiple sclerosis in Spain]. / Las variables meteorológicas no explican el gradiente norte-sur en la mortalidad por esclerosis múltiple en España.

OBJECTIVES: To determine whether weather conditions explain the North-South gradient in multiple sclerosis (MS) mortality described in Spain. METHODS: The age-adjusted MS mortality rate by Spanish provinces from 1975 to 1998 was correlated with several climatic variables. RESULTS: MS mortality was negatively correlated with minimum, average and maximum temperatures, the mean number of hours of sunshine, and the mean number of sunny days. A positive correlation was found with the average amount of rain. Most correlations disappeared after adjusting by latitude. However, MS mortality was associated with latitude after adjusting by climatic factors. CONCLUSIONS: The North-South gradient in MS mortality in Spain cannot be fully explained by weather differences. Therefore, other hypotheses are required to explain this association.

Cervical cancer mortality is increasing in Spanish women younger than 50.

Spanish women seem to have low cervical cancer mortality rates and some studies suggest the trend is stationary; however, this fact remains unclear because a great number of uterine cancer cases are classified as site unspecified. The main goal in this paper is to study mortality trends due to cancer of the cervix in young Spanish women. The percentage of uterus cancer deaths recorded as site unspecified has fallen from 90% in 1965 to 25% in 1995. Mortality by cervical cancer decreases in women aged 25-49 born before 1939-1948 and increases in women born later. This result is shown in each 5-year age group and seems independent from the percentage of unspecified site uterine cancer. In conclusion, Spanish women aged under 50 are suffering an increase in cervix uteri mortality rates; this rise can be related with behavioural changes occurring from 1970-1975 on.

Performance at 10 years of the CarboMedics "Top-Hat" valve. Postclamping time is a predictor of mortality.

OBJECTIVE: The CarboMedics "Top-Hat" supraannular prosthesis was designed to permit the implantation of a larger prosthesis. We evaluated the outcome at 10 years in patients with this prosthesis. METHODS: Between June 1993 and May 2001, 269 patients (average age, 63.9 years) received a CarboMedics "Top-Hat" supraannular aortic prosthesis. Primary valve replacement was performed on 203 patients (75.5%) and repeat valve replacement on 66 (24.5%). The duration of myocardial ischemia was 70.2+/-31.4 min, cardiopulmonary bypass 96.1+/-48.3 min, and postclamping time (time between release of aortic clamp and the end of extracorporeal circulation) 22.1+/-41.3 min. The mean follow-up was 82.3+/-17.8 months. Follow-up was 97.6% complete. RESULTS: The hospital mortality was 5.9%. It was 1% when the duration of postclamping time was <15 min, 2.8% between 15 and 29 min, 13.2% between 30 and 44 min, and 26.9% >44 min. In the multivariate analysis, postclamping time, urgent surgery, and body mass index were statistically significant risk factors for hospital mortality. The late mortality was 17.1%. Cardiac-related mortality showed a linearized rate of 18.1% per 1000 patients-year. The Kaplan-Meier estimates for cardiac-related mortality was 75.0% at 10 years. Postclamping time, aortic valve gradient, age over 70 years, and BMI were statistically significant risk factors for cardiac-related late mortality. The incidence of paravalvular leak in the "Top-Hat" aortic prosthesis was 1.7% per 1000 patients-year. CONCLUSIONS: Using the CarboMedics supraannular prosthesis allows implantation of a larger prosthesis without increasing valve-related complications. Postclamping time appears as a strong predictor of both hospital mortality and late cardiac-related death.

Nitrogen dioxide increases cardiorespiratory admissions in Torrelavega (Spain).

The objective of the study reported here was to analyze relationships between levels of air pollutants and emergency admissions for cardiorespiratory disease. Admission data from January 1, 1992, to December 31, 1995, were obtained from the Marques de Valdecilla University Hospital Admission Service; meteorological data (rainfall, temperatures wind speed, wind direction) were obtained from the National Meteorology Institute in Santander. Pollutant data on sulfur dioxide (SO2), hydrogen sulfide (H2S), total suspended particles (TSP), nitrogen oxide (NO), and nitrogen dioxide (NO2) were provided by the secretary of environment for the Cantabrian Regional Government. Rate ratios were estimated for each pollutant by Poisson regression; they were adjusted for meteorological variables. It was found that elevated NO2 increased by 20 percent the risk of having an admission for cardiorespiratory diseases; this effect was mainly due to respiratory diseases (rate ratio = 1.7, p < .001) and was negligible for cardiac diseases (rate ratio = 1.1, p = .28). In the one-pollutant model, elevated particulates and nitrogen monoxide were also related to admissions, but this effect disappeared when a five-pollutant model was used (p = .21 and p = 0.36, respectively. SO2 and SH2 did not show any relationship with admissions. Thus, nitrogen dioxide was the only pollutant the authors found to be related to emergency admissions for cardiorespiratory diseases. It is difficult to generalize from these results because of the small number of daily admissions and the variability in pollutant levels; therefore, more studies are necessary to improve knowledge about the relationship between air pollution and health in small towns.

[Competing risks of death and Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium in case-control studies of gene-disease association]. / Riesgos competitivos de muerte y equilibrio de Hardy-Weinberg en estudios de casos y controles sobre asociación entre genes y enfermedades.

OBJECTIVE: To study the impact of competing risks on Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium and their consequences in case-control studies of gene-late onset disease association. METHODS: Based on a population born in Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium for a particular gene, the genetic composition when the gene is associated with a lethal early-onset disease and its consequences on a late-onset disease can be deduced. Odds ratios estimates are unbiased in case-control studies when controls are sampled by density, even if the controls are in Hardy-Weinberg disequilibrium. RESULTS: An example in which a mutant gene is associated with early mortality is presented, producing a departure from Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium; as a result, controls in later ages are in disequilibrium, producing an odds ratio equal to 1.61. CONCLUSION: Although the main causes of Hardy-Weinberg disequilibrium in controls are selection bias or genotyping error, a competing risk of death associated with the mutant gene would also result in Hardy-Weinberg disequilibrium among controls.

Quality of controlled clinical trials on glaucoma and intraocular high pressure.

AIM: To study the quality of controlled clinical trials on glaucoma. METHODS: Two hundred and twenty-six clinical trials published between 1980 and 1999 were selected from seven international ophthalmological journals. Their quality was assessed by four researchers with epidemiological skills using a structured questionnaire. RESULTS: Sample size was pre-estimated in 34 (15.0%) papers, which were of greater size (P = 0.05). Randomization was performed in 98.2% of the trials, although the procedure of randomization was scarcely reported. Masking was reported in 56.6% of the papers, and was more frequent in medical treatments (P < 0.001). The basal characteristics of the groups were compared in 139 papers (61.5%). Patient losses during the follow-up period were fully described in only 27 trials. Intention-to-treat analysis was used in 17 (7.7%) papers. Most trials reported P values, but a measure of effect (mean, proportion, or relative risk) appeared in only 16 trials (7.7%). Trials performed in the US more frequently compared baseline characteristics of the groups (P = 0.03), described the patient flow (P = 0.04), and used adequate statistical procedures (P = 0.03). Those trials that included a statistician or an epidemiologist among the authors were more commonly blinded (P = 0.06) and they always avoided the analyses of subgroups (P = 0.006). Several methodological issues have improved throughout the studied period. CONCLUSIONS: Several methodological characteristics should be improved when reporting a clinical trial on glaucoma. Using a checklist like that suggested by the CONSORT can help to achieve this.

Mortality trends of multiple sclerosis in Spain, 1951-1997: an age-period-cohort analysis.

Trends of multiple sclerosis mortality in Spain from 1951 to 1997 are examined. Age-adjusted mortality strongly decreased from 3.08 per 100,000 women in 1951-1967 to 0.59 in 1968-1980 (similar figures were obtained for men). This decrease seems to be due to an artifact produced by changes in codification of causes of death. An age-period-cohort analysis, limited to the period 1968-1997, showed that the mortality trend in Spain cannot be fully explained by year of death (period effect), but that a cohort (year of birth) effect is also necessary. An increase in mortality related with the cohort of birth was detected: people born after 1953 had double the risk of those born between 1938 and 1947, and four times the risk of those born between 1923 and 1932. Regarding the period effect, there is a decrease in mortality, probably due to improvements in life expectancy of multiple sclerosis patients.

Mortality of multiple sclerosis in Spain: demonstration of a north-South gradient.

OBJECTIVE: To analyse the geographical distribution of multiple sclerosis in Spain from 1975 to 1998. METHODS: Age-adjusted mortality rates by province were obtained by the indirect method using the whole Spanish population as the reference. Then, standardised mortality ratios (SMRs) and their 95% confidence intervals were estimated. RESULTS: For both men and women, provinces with SMRs higher than the mean tended to be in the northern third of Spain, whilst those with SMRs lower than the mean were mostly located in the southern half. A linear regression analysis showed a significant positive association between mortality and latitude. CONCLUSION: A north-south gradient in age-adjusted multiple sclerosis mortality exists in Spain.