The Impact of Climate Change on Vegetable Crop Diseases and Their Management: The Value of Phytotron Studies for the Agricultural Industry and Associated Stakeholders.

Climate change is having a significant impact on global agriculture, particularly on vegetable crops, which play a critical role in global nutrition. Recently, increasing research has concentrated on the impact of climate change on vegetable crop diseases, with several studies being conducted in phytotrons, which have been used to explore the effects of increased temperatures and CO2 concentrations to simulate future scenarios. This review focuses on the combined effects of temperature and carbon dioxide increases on foliar and soilborne vegetable diseases, as evaluated under phytotron conditions. The influence of climate change on mycotoxin production and disease management strategies is also explored through case studies. The results offer valuable information that can be used to guide both seed and agrochemical industries, as well as to develop disease-resistant varieties and innovative control measures, including biocontrol agents, considering the diseases that are likely to become prevalent under future climatic scenarios. Recommendations on how to manage vegetable diseases under ongoing climate change are proposed to facilitate plants' adaptation to and enhanced against the changing conditions. A proactive and comprehensive response to climate-induced challenges in vegetable farming is imperative to ensure food security and sustainability.

Effects of fungicide application on physiological and molecular responses of grapevine (Vitis vinifera L.): a comparison between copper and sulfur fungicides applied alone and in combination with novel fungicides.

BACKGROUND: Chemical products against fungi and oomycetes pose serious environmental issues. In the last decade, the use of less impacting active ingredients was encouraged to reduce chemical inputs in viticulture. In this study, the effect of different antifungal compounds on grapevine agronomic, physiological, and molecular responses in the vineyard was evaluated in addition to protection against powdery and downy mildews. RESULTS: In 2 years and in two Vitis vinifera cultivars (Nebbiolo and Arneis), a conventional crop protection approach, based on traditional fungicides (sulfur and copper), was compared to combined strategies. A well-known resistance inducer (potassium phosphonate), Bacillus pumilus strain QST 2808 and calcium oxide, both active ingredients whose biological interaction with grapevine is poorly characterized, were applied in the combined strategies in association with chemical fungicides. Despite a genotype effect occurred, all treatments optimally controlled powdery and downy mildews, with minimal variations in physiological and molecular responses. Gas exchange, chlorophyll content and photosystem II efficiency increased in treated plants at the end of season, along with a slight improvement in the agronomic performances, and an activation of molecular defense processes linked to stilbene and jasmonate pathways. CONCLUSION: The disease control strategies based on potassium phosphonate, Bacillus pumilus strain QST 2808 or calcium oxide combined with traditional chemical compounds did not cause severe limitations in plant ecophysiology, grape quality, and productive yields. The combination of potassium phosphonate and calcium oxide with traditional fungicides can represent a valuable strategy for reducing copper and sulfur inputs in the vineyards, including those organically managed. © 2023 The Authors. Pest Management Science published by John Wiley & Sons Ltd on behalf of Society of Chemical Industry.

Assessment of microbial biocontrol agent (BCA) viability to mechanical and thermal stress by simulating spray application conditions.

BACKGROUND: In order to improve the biological control agent (BCA) efficacy, stress factors threatening the viability of microorganisms during spray application need to be determined. The effect of spray mixture temperature and exposure time on Trichoderma harzianum T 22 and Bacillus amyloliquefaciens QST713 viability were tested. Concurrently the combined effect of mechanical and thermal stress effect on BCA viability were tested at two initial spray mixture temperatures (14 and 25 °C) by simulating a spray application using airblast sprayers featured by different tank capacity and a spray liquid circuit (without and with hydraulic agitation system). To assess the BCA microorganism viability, spray mixture samples were collected at time intervals along trials and plated to count the colony forming units (CFU). RESULTS: The critical temperature threshold that inhibited BCA viability was 35 °C with 30 min of exposure. The sprayer type, the initial temperature of the spray mixture and the temperature increment during the trials significantly decreased the number of CFU recovered. When simulating a spray application, the spray mixture temperature increase rate was determined mainly by the residual amount of spray mixture in the tank. Even if the tank capacity does not substantially affect the final temperature reached by the spray mixture, the higher residual spray mixture in bigger tanks can expose the BCAs for a longer time to critical temperatures. CONCLUSIONS: Experimental trials allowed us to identify the effect of factors affecting the viability of tested BCAs, providing information about the actual chance to guarantee the biological efficacy of BCA treatments. © 2023 The Authors. Pest Management Science published by John Wiley & Sons Ltd on behalf of Society of Chemical Industry.

First Report of Gnomoniopsis fragrariae causing leaf spots on strawberry in Italy.

Strawberry (Fragaria × ananassa Duch.) is widely cultivated in Italy. During May-June 2022, mild symptoms of an unknown leaf spot disease appeared on 5-10% of June-bearing strawberry (cv. Elodì) plants transplanted in July 2021 in a commercial farm located in the province of Cuneo, North Italy. During September-November 2022, the symptoms appeared also on 10-15% of the plants transplanted in July 2022. The disease was scattered throughout the field, large 600 m2, both on new and senescent leaves. Fungicides (sulphur, Tiovit Jet; penconazole, Topas 10 EC) were applied to the plants according to integrated pest management during the growing period. The disease symptoms were purplish to brown necrotic leaf spots up to 1-3 mm in diameter and chlorotic leaf margins. Black lesions were occasionally observed on the petioles, appearing as small necrotic or larger elongated lesions causing leaf death. Peritechia were observed in planta after about 4 months from sampling and measured (144 to 239 µm and 200 to 291 µm, n = 10). Diseased leaves and petioles from about 10 plants were surface disinfested for 1 min in 1% NaClO, rinsed with sterile water and plated on potato dextrose agar (PDA) amended with 25 mg streptomycin sulphate/liter. A fungus with white cottony colonies was repeatedly recovered and maintained in pure culture on PDA. Biguttulate conidia with rounded ends were measured (4.3 to 8.0 µm and 1.2 to 2.9 µm, average 6.1× 2.3 µm, n = 50) from 21-day old colonies grown in PDA at 22°C and 12 h photoperiod. According to colony and conidia morphology, the isolate was identified as Gnomoniopsis sp. (Walker et al., 2010). The fungal DNA was extracted from a pure culture of one isolate selected as a representative (code FR2-22), by using the E.Z.N.A. Fungal DNA Mini Kit (Omega Bio-Tek, Darmstadt, Germany). The identification was carried out by amplifying and sequencing the internal transcribed spacer (ITS) region and the partial translation elongation factor 1-α (TEF) gene using the primers ITS1/ITS4 and EF-728F/EF2 (Udayanga et al., 2021), respectively. The purified PCR products were sequenced at the BMR Genomics Centre (Padova, Italy) obtaining 551bp (ITS) and 652bp (TEF) sequences deposited in GenBank (Accession nos. OQ179950 and OQ190173, respectively). A BLASTn search of both sequences revealed to be 100% identical to the ITS and TEF loci of Gnomoniopsis fructicola sequences of the isolates VPRI_15547 and CBS 275.51 deposited in GenBank with accession Nos. MT378345 and MT383092. The pathogenicity of the isolate FR2-22 was assessed in two trials by biological tests (3 replicates with 1 plant per replicate/pot) in two greenhouse compartments, kept at temperature 20-24°C and at humidity 80-90%. Healthy leaves of forty-day-old strawberry plants (cv. Elodì) were sprayed with 1-5 x106 conidia/ml obtained from the FR2-22 isolate grown on PDA at 25°C for 20 days. The control (water-sprayed plants) was kept in the same conditions. Small leaf spots similar to the symptoms previously observed in the farm were observed 15 days post inoculation. Furthermore, 30 to 40% of leaves developed symptoms similar to those observed in the field after 25-40 days, while the control remained health. The same fungal isolate was repeatedly reisolated from the affected leaves and petioles and identified based on TEF sequencing. Gnomoniopsis fragariae comb. nov., designed as new name for Gnomoniopsis fructicola (Udayanga et al., 2021), has previously been reported on Fragaria × ananassa plants in Australia and in the USA (Farr and Rossman, 2023). To the best of our knowledge, this is the first report of G. fragariae on strawberry in Italy. The impact of the disease caused by this pathogen could be of high importance in the future of strawberry production in Italy. Healthy propagation material and strict disease management practices in nurseries is a requirement to avoid disease epidemics.

Microbial-Based Products to Control Soil-Borne Pathogens: Methods to Improve Efficacy and to Assess Impacts on Microbiome.

Microbial-based products (either as biopesticide or biofertilizers) have a long history of application, though their use is still limited, mainly due to a perceived low and inconsistent efficacy under field conditions. However, their efficacy has always been compared to chemical products, which have a completely different mechanism of action and production process, following the chemical paradigm of agricultural production. This paradigm has also been applied to regulatory processes, particularly for biopesticides, making the marketing of microbial-based formulations difficult. Increased knowledge about bioinocula behavior after application to the soil and their impact on soil microbiome should foster better exploitation of microbial-based products in a complex environment such as the soil. Moreover, the multifunctional capacity of microbial strains with regard to plant growth promotion and protection should also be considered in this respect. Therefore, the methods utilized for these studies are key to improving the knowledge and understanding of microbial-based product activity and improving their efficacy, which, from farmers' point of view, is the parameter to assess the usefulness of a treatment. In this review, we are thus addressing aspects related to the production and formulation process, highlighting the methods that can be used to evaluate the functioning and impact of microbial-based products on soil microbiome, as tools supporting their use and marketing.

Calcium oxide, potassium phosphite and a Trichoderma enriched compost water suspension protect Capsicum annuum against Phytophthora capsici by priming the immune system.

BACKGROUND: Proper management of Phytophthora capsici in pepper cultivation is extremely important, since Phytophthora blight is the main disease of this crop worldwide. In the past, the main strategy adopted had been the use of fungicides, causing, in some cases, the development of P. capsici resistant strains. In this work three different treatments selected from previous studies (potassium phosphite, calcium oxide and a water suspension from Trichoderma sp. TW2 enriched compost) were tested to prove their ability to activate the systemic acquired resistance (SAR) in pepper against P. capsici; acibenzolar-s-methyl was used as positive control. Two independent growth chamber pot experiments were performed, spatially dividing the site of treatments application (as radical drench) and the site of inoculation (as agar plug on the third leaf). RESULTS: Leaf lesions were measured, showing a significant reduction on all treated plants compared to the untreated control. To further confirm this hypothesis, the expression levels of three SAR key genes (CaPBR1, CaPO1 and CaDEF1) were evaluated though RT-Real Time PCR at the three end-point times: T0, T6 and T24. A significant increase of target genes expression at least in one end-point time in each treated plant was observed. Eventually, statistical overaccumulation of salicylic acid was observed in the upper leaves at the same end-point times, through HPLC-MS/MS analysis. CONCLUSION: This work confirmed the hypothesis that the three treatments tested have the ability to prime the plant immune system, leading pepper to an alert status able to confer a better defence against P. capsici. © 2021 The Authors. Pest Management Science published by John Wiley & Sons Ltd on behalf of Society of Chemical Industry.

Biological and molecular interplay between two viruses and powdery and downy mildews in two grapevine cultivars.

Grapevine may be affected simultaneously by several pathogens whose complex interplay is largely unknown. We studied the effects of infection by two grapevine viruses on powdery mildew and downy mildew development and the molecular modifications induced in grapevines by their multiple interactions. Grapevine fanleaf virus (GFLV) and grapevine rupestris stem pitting-associated virus (GRSPaV) were transmitted by in vitro-grafting to Vitis vinifera cv Nebbiolo and Chardonnay virus-free plantlets regenerated by somatic embryogenesis. Grapevines were then artificially inoculated in the greenhouse with either Plasmopara viticola or Erysiphe necator spores. GFLV-infected plants showed a reduction in severity of the diseases caused by powdery and downy mildews in comparison to virus-free plants. GFLV induced the overexpression of stilbene synthase genes, pathogenesis-related proteins, and influenced the genes involved in carbohydrate metabolism in grapevine. These transcriptional changes suggest improved innate plant immunity, which makes the GFLV-infected grapevines less susceptible to other biotic attacks. This, however, cannot be extrapolated to GRSPaV as it was unable to promote protection against the fungal/oomycete pathogens. In these multiple interactions, the grapevine genotype seemed to have a crucial role: in 'Nebbiolo', the virus-induced molecular changes were different from those observed in 'Chardonnay', suggesting that different metabolic pathways may be involved in protection against fungal/oomycete pathogens. These results indicate that complex interactions do exist between grapevine and its different pathogens and represent the first study on a topic that still is largely unexplored.

The Molecular Priming of Defense Responses is Differently Regulated in Grapevine Genotypes Following Elicitor Application against Powdery Mildew.

Molecular changes associated with response to powdery mildew (PM) caused by Erysiphe necator have been largely explored in Vitis vinifera cultivars, but little is known on transcriptional and metabolic modifications following application of resistance elicitors against this disease. In this study, the whole transcriptome sequencing, and hormone and metabolite analyses were combined to dissect long-term defense mechanisms induced by molecular reprogramming events in PM-infected 'Moscato' and 'Nebbiolo' leaves treated with three resistance inducers: acibenzolar-S-methyl, potassium phosphonate, and laminarin. Although all compounds were effective in counteracting the disease, acibenzolar-S-methyl caused the most intense transcriptional modifications in both cultivars. These involved a strong down-regulation of photosynthesis and energy metabolism and changes in carbohydrate accumulation and partitioning that most likely shifted the plant growth-defense trade-off towards the establishment of disease resistance processes. It was also shown that genotype-associated metabolic signals significantly affected the cultivar defense machinery. Indeed, 'Nebbiolo' and 'Moscato' built up different defense strategies, often enhanced by the application of a specific elicitor, which resulted in either reinforcement of early defense mechanisms (e.g., epicuticular wax deposition and overexpression of pathogenesis-related genes in 'Nebbiolo'), or accumulation of endogenous hormones and antimicrobial compounds (e.g., high content of abscisic acid, jasmonic acid, and viniferin in 'Moscato').

A Compost Treatment Acts as a Suppressive Agent in Phytophthora capsici - Cucurbita pepo Pathosystem by Modifying the Rhizosphere Microbiota.

Phytophthora capsici Leonian (PHC) is a filamentous pathogen oomycete that causes root, fruit, foliar and crown rot over a wide host range, including the economically and nutritionally important summer squash (Cucurbita pepo var. cylindrica L.) crop. PHC chemical control strategies are difficult to adopt, due to the limited number of registered chemicals that are permitted and the scalar harvest system. For these reasons, other strategies, such as the use of waste-based composts that can act as suppressive agents against several soilborne pathogens, have been studied intensively. It is well known that compost's microbiota plays an important role to confer its suppressive ability. In this study, four different composts were analyzed with both 16S rRNA gene and 18S rRNA gene real-time PCR amplification and with 26S gene amplicon-based sequencing; the total abundance of the bacterial and fungal communities was found to be higher compared to literature, thus confirming that the four composts were a good inoculum source for agricultural applications. The core mycobiota was mainly composed of 31 genera; nevertheless, it was possible to observe a clear predominance of the same few taxa in all the composts. The four composts were then tested, at different concentrations (1-10-20% v/v), to establish their ability to confer suppressiveness to the Phytophthora capsici (PHC) - Cucurbita pepo pathosystem in controlled greenhouse pot trials. A total of 12 compost mixtures were considered, and of these, one (Trichoderma-enriched compost at 10% v/v) was able to statistically reduce the disease incidence caused by PHC (by 50% compared to the untreated control). Hence, the microbiota composition of the most effective compost treatment was investigated and compared with untreated and chemical (metalaxyl) controls. Mycobiota sequencing showed genera differences between the three treatments, with relative abundances of several fungal genera that were significantly different among the samples. Moreover, PCA analyses clustered the compost treatment differently from the chemical and the untreated controls. These findings suggest that suppressive activity of a compost is strictly influenced by its microbiota and the applied dosage, but the ability to induce a shaping in the rhizosphere microbial composition is also required.

Impact of Chemical and Alternative Fungicides Applied to Grapevine cv Nebbiolo on Microbial Ecology and Chemical-Physical Grape Characteristics at Harvest.

Viticulture is a cropping system in which treatment against fungal diseases (in particular powdery and downy mildews) can be extremely frequent. Accordingly, a reduction in antimicrobial treatments and the application of environmentally-friendly compounds are becoming increasingly important for a more sustainable viticulture. In addition to their effect against pathogens, the impact of these products on the quality of the grapes is very important for the oenological industries, but unfortunately at present few data are available. We evaluated the effect of the application of biocontrol products and resistance inducers in the vineyard on the mechanical properties, microbial ecology, technological and phenolic maturity of Vitis vinifera "Nebbiolo" grapes at harvest. The yield and vigor of vines were not influenced by the treatments, nor were the production of primary and secondary metabolites. However, the active ingredients influenced the mechanical properties of the skin (hardness and thickness). A significant hardening of the skin was detected when laminarin and chito-oligosaccharides were used, and sulfur induced a thickening of the skin with potential consequences for wine quality. Furthermore, the yeast community present on grape berries was influenced by the treatments. The abundance of Aureobasidium pullulans, the dominant species on the grape berry, changed in response to the compounds used. In addition, Alternaria sp. was reduced in some treatments with a potentially positive effect on the quality and the safety of the grapes. This study provides an overview of the effect of biocontrol products and resistance inducers on microbial ecology and "Nebbiolo" grape quality, contributing to the establishment of more sustainable and effective defense strategies in viticulture.

Anaerobic digestates from sewage sludge used as fertilizer on a poor alkaline sandy soil and on a peat substrate: Effects on tomato plants growth and on soil properties.

Anaerobic digestates from sewage sludge (SSADs) are a by-product of the wastewater treatment process that still preserves a certain agronomic interest for its richness in plant nutrients and organic matter. Fertilizing properties of two liquid and two dewatered SSADs were tested on tomato plants (Solanum lycopersicum L.). Pot experiments were performed on sandy soil and peat substrate under greenhouse conditions with a SSADs application rate of 170 kg N/ha over a period of three months. Beneficial effects of SSADs were reported on different growth parameters, revealing an increase in biomass and height up to 37.5 and 6-folds over untreated control. No phytotoxic effect occurred on SSAD-exposed plants. Chemical analysis of soils treated with SSADs showed enrichment of macro- and micro-nutrients as well as organic matter. In some cases, the chemical characterization of leaves revealed an enhancement of uptaken macronutrients. This study contributed in general to deepen the knowledge on the short-term growing season fertilizing effects of SSAD. Despite the treatment dosage was calculated only on nitrogen requirements, the study highlighted the importance of the other nutrients and organic matter on plant growth.

Grapevine Phyllosphere Community Analysis in Response to Elicitor Application against Powdery Mildew.

The reduction of antimicrobial treatments and mainly the application of environmentally friendly compounds, such as resistance elicitors, is an impelling challenge to undertake more sustainable agriculture. We performed this research to study the effectiveness of non-conventional compounds in reducing leaf fungal attack and to investigate whether they influence the grape phyllosphere. Pathogenicity tests were conducted on potted Vitis vinifera "Nebbiolo" and "Moscato" cultivars infected with the powdery mildew agent (Erysiphe necator) and treated with three elicitors. Differences in the foliar microbial community were then evaluated by community-level physiological profiling by using BiologTM EcoPlates, high throughput sequencing of the Internal Transcribed Spacer (ITS) region, and RNA sequencing for the viral community. In both cultivars, all products were effective as they significantly reduced pathogen development. EcoPlate analysis and ITS sequencing showed that the microbial communities were not influenced by the alternative compound application, confirming their specific activity as plant defense elicitors. Nevertheless, "Moscato" plants were less susceptible to the disease and presented different phyllosphere composition, resulting in a richer viral community, when compared with the "Nebbiolo" plants. The observed effect on microbial communities pointed to the existence of distinct genotype-specific defense mechanisms independently of the elicitor application.

Evaluation of anaerobic digestates from sewage sludge as a potential solution for improvement of soil fertility.

Sewage sludge production in European countries has widely raised in the last decade and its fate is currently landfilling, incinerators, composting or land application. To explore its agronomic potential, the main target of this work is to understand the effects of anaerobic digestates from sewage sludge (SSAD). To this aim, four different SSADs (two liquids and two dewatered) were characterized. On the liquid ones, Germination Index was evaluated through a plate bioassay with Lepidium sativum L. seeds; low concentrations of SSAD (2.5%) improved GI in one case, while at higher concentrations phytotoxic effects occurred in both. Then, pot experiments were set in climate chamber with Cucumis sativus L. grown for 30 days on two different substrates: a sandy, alkaline and poor soil, and peat substrate. All SSADs and a mineral fertilizer were used at three increasing dosages: 85, 170, 255 kg of nitrogen per hectare (kg N/ha). Results in terms of germination, dry biomass, chlorophyll content, net photosynthesis, stomatal conductance, CO2 concentration in substomatal cavity and root development were compared to a not treated control. All treatments gave results significantly higher or similar to control on all the parameters evaluated. Moreover, the intermediate nitrogen dosage (170 kg N/ha) generally showed the highest results compared to other dosages, especially for dewatered SSADs. All these results were much more evident for cucumber plants grown on an the alkaline, sandy and poor soil than on peat substrate, such demonstrating that SSADs have a fertilizing effect for plants growing on this kind of soil.

Correction: Molecular characterization and sensitivity to demethylation inhibitor fungicides of Aspergillus fumigatus from orange-based compost.

[This corrects the article DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0200569.].

Molecular characterization and sensitivity to demethylation inhibitor fungicides of Aspergillus fumigatus from orange-based compost.

Aspergillus fumigatus, the causal agent of human aspergilloses, is known to be non-pathogenic in plants. It is present as saprophyte in different types of organic matter and develops rapidly during the high-temperature phase of the composting process. Aspergilloses are treated with demethylation inhibitor (DMI) fungicides and resistant isolates have been recently reported. The present study aims to estimate the abundance, genetic diversity and DMI sensitivity of A. fumigatus during the composting process of orange fruits. Composting of orange fruits resulted in a 100-fold increase in A. fumigatus frequency already after 1 week, demonstrating that the degradation of orange fruits favoured the growth of A. fumigatus in compost. Most of A. fumigatus isolates belonged to mating type 2, including those initially isolated from the orange peel, whereas mating type 1 evolved towards the end of the composting process. None of the A. fumigatus isolates expressed simultaneously both mating types. The 52 investigated isolates exhibited moderate SSR polymorphisms by formation of one major (47 isolates) and one minor cluster (5 isolates). The latter included mating type 1 isolates from the last sampling and the DMI-resistant reference strains. Only few isolates showed cyp51A polymorphisms but were sensitive to DMIs as all the other isolates. None of the A. fumigatus isolates owned any of the mutations associated with DMI resistance. This study documents a high reproduction rate of A. fumigatus during the composting process of orange fruits, requesting specific safety precautions in compost handling. Furthermore, azole residue concentrations in orange-based compost were not sufficient to select A. fumigatus resistant genotypes.

Abundance, genetic diversity and sensitivity to demethylation inhibitor fungicides of Aspergillus fumigatus isolates from organic substrates with special emphasis on compost.

BACKGROUND: Aspergillus fumigatus is a widespread fungus that colonizes dead organic substrates but it can also cause fatal human diseases. Aspergilloses are treated with demethylation inhibitor (DMI) fungicides; however, resistant isolates appeared recently in the medical and also environmental area. The present study aims at molecular characterizing and quantifying A. fumigatus in major environmental habitats and determining its sensitivity to medical and agricultural DMI fungicides. RESULTS: A. fumigatus was isolated only rarely from soil and meadow/forest organic matter but high concentrations (103 to 107 cfu/g) were detected in substrates subjected to elevated temperatures, such as compost and silage. High genetic diversity of A. fumigatus from compost was found based on SSR markers, distinguishing among fungal isolates even when coming from the same substrate sample, while subclustering was observed based on mutations in cyp51A gene. Several cyp51A amino acid substitutions were found in 15 isolates, although all isolates were fully sensitive to the tested DMI fungicides, with exception of one isolate in combination with one fungicide. CONCLUSION: This study suggests that the tested A. fumigatus isolates collected in Italy, Spain and Hungary from the fungus' major living habitats (compost) and commercial growing substrates are not potential carriers for DMI resistance in the environment. © 2017 Society of Chemical Industry.

Evaluation of the efficacy of insecticidal coatings based on teflutrin and chlorpyrifos against Rhynchophorus ferrugineus.

BACKGROUND: The date palm (Phoenix dactylifera L.), an important economic resource for many nations worldwide, has recently been threatened by the presence of different insect pests, like the red palm weevil (RPW) Rhynchophorus ferrugineus. RESULTS: Two products, a glue (polyvinyl acetate) and an oil (raw linseed oil) were used as coatings and applied together with a repellent and two insecticides (teflutrin and chlorpyrifos) at different dosages on two species of palm (P. dactylifera and P. canariensis). Phytotoxic effects of the treatments were evaluated in a greenhouse on 260 potted palms (130 P. dactylifera and 130 P. canariensis) and no negative effects were observed. Afterwards, a trial lasting 400 days was carried out in a nursery located in Sicily (south Italy), treating 572 potted palm trees (286 P. dactylifera and 286 P. canariensis) with an average diameter at the base of 18-20 cm. After 400 days, 48% of the untreated palms were infested, while only 3% of date palms and 7% of Canary palms treated with insecticide at lower dosages were infested. CONCLUSIONS: The application of an insecticide-based coating is a good strategy to control and prevent the red palm weevil infestation, in particular on date palms. © 2017 Society of Chemical Industry.

Biohydrogen and biomethane production sustained by untreated matrices and alternative application of compost waste.

Biohydrogen and biomethane production offers many advantages for environmental protection over the fossil fuels or the existing physical-chemical methods for hydrogen and methane synthesis. The aim of this study is focused on the exploitation of several samples from the composting process: (1) a mixture of waste vegetable materials ("Mix"); (2) an unmatured compost sample (ACV15); and (3) three types of green compost with different properties and soil improver quality (ACV1, ACV2 and ACV3). These samples were tested for biohydrogen and biomethane production, thus obtaining second generation biofuels and resulting in a novel possibility to manage renewable waste biomasses. The ability of these substrates as original feed during dark fermentation was assayed anaerobically in batch, in glass bottles, in order to determine the optimal operating conditions for hydrogen and/or methane production using "Mix" or ACV1, ACV2 or ACV3 green compost and a limited amount of water. Hydrogen could be produced with a fast kinetic in the range 0.02-2.45mLH2g(-1)VS, while methane was produced with a slower kinetic in the range 0.5-8mLCH4g(-1)VS. It was observed that the composition of each sample influenced significantly the gas production. It was also observed that the addition of different water amounts play a crucial role in the development of hydrogen or methane. This parameter can be used to push towards the alternative production of one or another gas. Hydrogen and methane production was detected spontaneously from these matrices, without additional sources of nutrients or any pre-treatment, suggesting that they can be used as an additional inoculum or feed into single or two-stage plants. This might allow the use of compost with low quality as soil improver for alternative and further applications.