PD1 inhibits PKCθ-dependent phosphorylation of cytoskeleton-related proteins and immune synapse formation.

The inhibitory cell surface receptor programmed death 1 (PD1) is a major target for antibody-based cancer immunotherapies. Nevertheless, a substantial number of patients fail to respond to the treatment or experience adverse effects. An improved understanding of intracellular pathways targeted by PD1 is thus needed to develop better predictive and prognostic biomarkers. Here, via unbiased phosphoproteome analysis of primary human T cells, we demonstrate that PD1 triggering inhibited the phosphorylation and physical association with PKC theta (PKCof a variety of cytoskeleton-related proteins. PD1 blocked activation and recruitment of PKCθ to the forming immune synapse (IS) in a SHP1/SHP2 tyrosine phosphatase-dependent manner. Consequently, PD1 engagement led to impaired synaptic phosphorylation of cytoskeleton-related proteins and formation of smaller IS. TCR-induced phosphorylation of the PKCθ substrate and binding partner Vimentin was long-lasting and it could be durably inhibited by PD1 triggering. Vimentin phosphorylation in intratumoral T cells also inversely correlated with PDL1 levels in human lung carcinoma. Thus, PKCθ and its substrate Vimentin represent important targets of PD1-mediated T-cell inhibition, and low levels of Vimentin phosphorylation may serve as a biomarker for the activation of the PD1 pathway.

ER-trafficking triggers NRF1 ubiquitination to promote its proteolytic activation.

The transcription factor NRF1 resides in the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) and is constantly transported to the cytosol for proteasomal degradation. However, when the proteasome is defective, NRF1 escapes degradation and undergoes proteolytic cleavage by the protease DDI2, generating a transcriptionally active form that restores proteostasis, including proteasome function. The mechanisms that regulate NRF1 proteolytic activation and transcriptional potential remain poorly understood. This study demonstrates that the ER is a crucial regulator of NRF1 function by orchestrating its ubiquitination through the E3 ubiquitin ligase HRD1. We show that HRD1-mediated NRF1 ubiquitination is necessary for DDI2-mediated processing in cells. Furthermore, we found that deficiency in both RAD23A and RAD23B impaired DDI2-mediated NRF1 processing, indicating that these genes are essential components of the DDI2 proteolytic machinery. Our findings highlight the intricate mechanism by which the ER activates NRF1 to coordinate the transcriptional activity of an adaptation response in cells.

Multiomics reveals multilevel control of renal and systemic metabolism by the renal tubular circadian clock.

Circadian rhythmicity in renal function suggests rhythmic adaptations in renal metabolism. To decipher the role of the circadian clock in renal metabolism, we studied diurnal changes in renal metabolic pathways using integrated transcriptomic, proteomic, and metabolomic analysis performed on control mice and mice with an inducible deletion of the circadian clock regulator Bmal1 in the renal tubule (cKOt). With this unique resource, we demonstrated that approximately 30% of RNAs, approximately 20% of proteins, and approximately 20% of metabolites are rhythmic in the kidneys of control mice. Several key metabolic pathways, including NAD+ biosynthesis, fatty acid transport, carnitine shuttle, and ß-oxidation, displayed impairments in kidneys of cKOt mice, resulting in perturbed mitochondrial activity. Carnitine reabsorption from primary urine was one of the most affected processes with an approximately 50% reduction in plasma carnitine levels and a parallel systemic decrease in tissue carnitine content. This suggests that the circadian clock in the renal tubule controls both kidney and systemic physiology.

Molecular insights into sex-specific metabolic alterations in Alzheimer's mouse brain using multi-omics approach.

BACKGROUND: Alzheimer's disease (AD) is a progressive neurodegenerative disorder that is characterized by altered cellular metabolism in the brain. Several of these alterations have been found to be exacerbated in females, known to be disproportionately affected by AD. We aimed to unravel metabolic alterations in AD at the metabolic pathway level and evaluate whether they are sex-specific through integrative metabolomic, lipidomic, and proteomic analysis of mouse brain tissue. METHODS: We analyzed male and female triple-transgenic mouse whole brain tissue by untargeted mass spectrometry-based methods to obtain a molecular signature consisting of polar metabolite, complex lipid, and protein data. These data were analyzed using multi-omics factor analysis. Pathway-level alterations were identified through joint pathway enrichment analysis or by separately evaluating lipid ontology and known proteins related to lipid metabolism. RESULTS: Our analysis revealed significant AD-associated and in part sex-specific alterations across the molecular signature. Sex-dependent alterations were identified in GABA synthesis, arginine biosynthesis, and in alanine, aspartate, and glutamate metabolism. AD-associated alterations involving lipids were also found in the fatty acid elongation pathway and lysophospholipid metabolism, with a significant sex-specific effect for the latter. CONCLUSIONS: Through multi-omics analysis, we report AD-associated and sex-specific metabolic alterations in the AD brain involving lysophospholipid and amino acid metabolism. These findings contribute to the characterization of the AD phenotype at the molecular level while considering the effect of sex, an overlooked yet determinant metabolic variable.

A Database of Accurate Electrophoretic Migration Patterns for Human Proteins.

Native molecular weight (MW) is one of the defining features of proteins. Denaturing gel electrophoresis (SDS-PAGE) is a very popular technique for separating proteins and determining their MW. Coupled with antibody-based detection, SDS-PAGE is widely applied for protein identification and quantitation. Yet, electrophoresis is poorly reproducible and the MWs obtained are often inaccurate. This hampers antibody validation and negatively impacts the reliability of western blot data, resulting worldwide in a considerable waste of reagents and labour. We argue that, to alleviate these problems there is a need to establish a database of reference MWs measured by SDS-PAGE. Using mass spectrometry as an orthogonal detection method, we acquired electrophoretic migration patterns for approximately 10'000 human proteins in five commonly used cell lines. We applied a robust internal calibration of migration to determine accurate and reproducible molecular weights. This in turn allows merging replicates to increase accuracy, but also enables comparing different cell lines. Mining of the data obtained highlights structural factors that affect migration of distinct classes of proteins. When combined with peptide coverage, the data produced recapitulates known post-translational modifications and differential splicing and can be used to formulate hypotheses on new or poorly known processing events. The full information is freely accessible as a web resource through a user friendly graphical interface (https://pumba.dcsr.unil.ch/). We anticipate that this database will be useful to investigators worldwide for troubleshooting western blot experiments, but could also contribute to the characterization of human proteoforms.

Translational reprogramming in response to accumulating stressors ensures critical threshold levels of Hsp90 for mammalian life.

The cytosolic molecular chaperone Hsp90 is essential for eukaryotic life. Although reduced Hsp90 levels correlate with aging, it was unknown whether eukaryotic cells and organisms can tune the basal Hsp90 levels to alleviate physiologically accumulated stress. We have investigated whether and how mice adapt to the deletion of three out of four alleles of the two genes encoding cytosolic Hsp90, with one Hsp90ß allele being the only remaining one. While the vast majority of such mouse embryos die during gestation, survivors apparently manage to increase their Hsp90ß protein to at least wild-type levels. Our studies reveal an internal ribosome entry site in the 5' untranslated region of the Hsp90ß mRNA allowing translational reprogramming to compensate for the genetic loss of Hsp90 alleles and in response to stress. We find that the minimum amount of total Hsp90 required to support viability of mammalian cells and organisms is 50-70% of what is normally there. Those that fail to maintain a threshold level are subject to accelerated senescence, proteostatic collapse, and ultimately death. Therefore, considering that Hsp90 levels can be reduced ≥100-fold in the unicellular budding yeast, critical threshold levels of Hsp90 have markedly increased during eukaryotic evolution.

Phosphorylation in the Charged Linker Modulates Interactions and Secretion of Hsp90ß.

Hsp90ß is a major chaperone involved in numerous cellular processes. Hundreds of client proteins depend on Hsp90ß for proper folding and/or activity. Regulation of Hsp90ß is critical to coordinate its tasks and is mediated by several post-translational modifications. Here, we focus on two phosphorylation sites located in the charged linker region of human Hsp90ß, Ser226 and Ser255, which have been frequently reported but whose function remains unclear. Targeted measurements by mass spectrometry indicated that intracellular Hsp90ß is highly phosphorylated on both sites (>90%). The level of phosphorylation was unaffected by various stresses (e.g., heat shock, inhibition with drugs) that impact Hsp90ß activity. Mutating the two serines to alanines increased the amount of proteins interacting with Hsp90ß globally and increased the sensitivity to tryptic cleavage in the C-terminal domain. Further investigation revealed that phosphorylation on Ser255 and to a lesser extent on Ser226 is decreased in the conditioned medium of cultured K562 cells, and that a non-phosphorylatable double alanine mutant was secreted more efficiently than the wild type. Overall, our results show that phosphorylation events in the charged linker regulate both the interactions of Hsp90ß and its secretion, through changes in the conformation of the chaperone.

Bacterial Hsp90 Facilitates the Degradation of Aggregation-Prone Hsp70-Hsp40 Substrates.

In eukaryotes, the 90-kDa heat shock proteins (Hsp90s) are profusely studied chaperones that, together with 70-kDa heat shock proteins (Hsp70s), control protein homeostasis. In bacteria, however, the function of Hsp90 (HtpG) and its collaboration with Hsp70 (DnaK) remains poorly characterized. To uncover physiological processes that depend on HtpG and DnaK, we performed comparative quantitative proteomic analyses of insoluble and total protein fractions from unstressed wild-type (WT) Escherichia coli and from knockout mutants ΔdnaKdnaJ (ΔKJ), ΔhtpG (ΔG), and ΔdnaKdnaJΔhtpG (ΔKJG). Whereas the ΔG mutant showed no detectable proteomic differences with wild-type, ΔKJ expressed more chaperones, proteases and ribosomes and expressed dramatically less metabolic and respiratory enzymes. Unexpectedly, we found that the triple mutant ΔKJG showed higher levels of metabolic and respiratory enzymes than ΔKJ, suggesting that bacterial Hsp90 mediates the degradation of aggregation-prone Hsp70-Hsp40 substrates. Further in vivo experiments suggest that such Hsp90-mediated degradation possibly occurs through the HslUV protease.

Quantitative proteomic analysis to capture the role of heat-accumulated proteins in moss plant acquired thermotolerance.

At dawn of a scorching summer day, land plants must anticipate upcoming extreme midday temperatures by timely establishing molecular defences that can keep heat-labile membranes and proteins functional. A gradual morning pre-exposure to increasing sub-damaging temperatures induces heat-shock proteins (HSPs) that are central to the onset of plant acquired thermotolerance (AT). To gain knowledge on the mechanisms of AT in the model land plant Physcomitrium patens, we used label-free LC-MS/MS proteomics to quantify the accumulated and depleted proteins before and following a mild heat-priming treatment. High protein crowding is thought to promote protein aggregation, whereas molecular chaperones prevent and actively revert aggregation. Yet, we found that heat priming (HP) did not accumulate HSP chaperones in chloroplasts, although protein crowding was six times higher than in the cytosol. In contrast, several HSP20s strongly accumulated in the cytosol, yet contributing merely 4% of the net mass increase of heat-accumulated proteins. This is in poor concordance with their presumed role at preventing the aggregation of heat-labile proteins. The data suggests that under mild HP unlikely to affect protein stability. Accumulating HSP20s leading to AT, regulate the activity of rare and specific signalling proteins, thereby preventing cell death under noxious heat stress.

Robust and sensitive peptidomics workflow for plasma based on specific extraction, lipid removal, capillary LC setup and multinozzle ESI emitter.

We present a new workflow for the LC-MS determination of native peptides in plasma at picomolar levels. Collected whole blood was quickly diluted with an ice-cold solution in order to stop protease activity. Diluted plasma samples were extracted by protein denaturation followed by solid-phase-extraction with a polymeric stationary phase that removed most proteins and lipids. Using a specific LC-MS setup with 3 pumps, 240 µL of extracts were injected without drying-reconstitution, a step known to cause peptide losses. After an 18-fold dilution on-line, peptides were trapped on a 1 × 10 mm C8 column, back-flushed and resolved on a 0.3 × 100 mm C18 column. Extract reproducibility, robustness (column clogging), extraction yields, matrix effects, calibration curves and limits of detection were evaluated with plasma extracts and spiked-in standards. The sensitivity and applicability of 3 electrospray sources were evaluated at capillary flow rates (10 µL/min). We show that ionization sources must have a spray angle with the MS orifice when "real" extracts are injected and that a multinozzle emitter can improve very significantly peptide detection. Finally, using our workflow, we have performed a peptidomics study on dried-blood-spots collected over 65 h in a healthy volunteer and discovered 5 fragments (2.9-3.8 KDa) of the protein statherin showing circadian oscillations. This is the first time that statherin is observed in blood where its role clearly deserves further investigations. Our peptidomic protocol shows low picomolar limits of detection and can be readily applied with or without minor modifications for most peptide determinations in various biomatrices.

The Hsp70-Hsp90 co-chaperone Hop/Stip1 shifts the proteostatic balance from folding towards degradation.

Hop/Stip1/Sti1 is thought to be essential as a co-chaperone to facilitate substrate transfer between the Hsp70 and Hsp90 molecular chaperones. Despite this proposed key function for protein folding and maturation, it is not essential in a number of eukaryotes and bacteria lack an ortholog. We set out to identify and to characterize its eukaryote-specific function. Human cell lines and the budding yeast with deletions of the Hop/Sti1 gene display reduced proteasome activity due to inefficient capping of the core particle with regulatory particles. Unexpectedly, knock-out cells are more proficient at preventing protein aggregation and at promoting protein refolding. Without the restraint by Hop, a more efficient folding activity of the prokaryote-like Hsp70-Hsp90 complex, which can also be demonstrated in vitro, compensates for the proteasomal defect and ensures the proteostatic equilibrium. Thus, cells may act on the level and/or activity of Hop to shift the proteostatic balance between folding and degradation.

Human shelterin protein POT1 prevents severe telomere instability induced by homology-directed DNA repair.

The evolutionarily conserved POT1 protein binds single-stranded G-rich telomeric DNA and has been implicated in contributing to telomeric DNA maintenance and the suppression of DNA damage checkpoint signaling. Here, we explore human POT1 function through genetics and proteomics, discovering that a complete absence of POT1 leads to severe telomere maintenance defects that had not been anticipated from previous depletion studies in human cells. Conditional deletion of POT1 in HEK293E cells gives rise to rapid telomere elongation and length heterogeneity, branched telomeric DNA structures, telomeric R-loops, and telomere fragility. We determine the telomeric proteome upon POT1-loss, implementing an improved telomeric chromatin isolation protocol. We identify a large set of proteins involved in nucleic acid metabolism that engage with telomeres upon POT1-loss. Inactivation of the homology-directed repair machinery suppresses POT1-loss-mediated telomeric DNA defects. Our results unravel as major function of human POT1 the suppression of telomere instability induced by homology-directed repair.

OCIAD1 is a host mitochondrial substrate of the hepatitis C virus NS3-4A protease.

The hepatitis C virus (HCV) nonstructural protein 3-4A (NS3-4A) protease is a key component of the viral replication complex and the target of protease inhibitors used in current clinical practice. By cleaving and thereby inactivating selected host factors it also plays a role in the persistence and pathogenesis of hepatitis C. Here, we describe ovarian cancer immunoreactive antigen domain containing protein 1 (OCIAD1) as a novel cellular substrate of the HCV NS3-4A protease. OCIAD1 was identified by quantitative proteomics involving stable isotopic labeling using amino acids in cell culture coupled with mass spectrometry. It is a poorly characterized membrane protein believed to be involved in cancer development. OCIAD1 is cleaved by the NS3-4A protease at Cys 38, close to a predicted transmembrane segment. Cleavage was observed in heterologous expression systems, the replicon and cell culture-derived HCV systems, as well as in liver biopsies from patients with chronic hepatitis C. NS3-4A proteases from diverse hepacivirus species efficiently cleaved OCIAD1. The subcellular localization of OCIAD1 on mitochondria was not altered by NS3-4A-mediated cleavage. Interestingly, OCIAD2, a homolog of OCIAD1 with a cysteine residue in a similar position and identical subcellular localization, was not cleaved by NS3-4A. Domain swapping experiments revealed that the sequence surrounding the cleavage site as well as the predicted transmembrane segment contribute to substrate selectivity. Overexpression as well as knock down and rescue experiments did not affect the HCV life cycle in vitro, raising the possibility that OCIAD1 may be involved in the pathogenesis of hepatitis C in vivo.

Proteo-Transcriptomic Dynamics of Cellular Response to HIV-1 Infection.

Throughout the HIV-1 replication cycle, complex host-pathogen interactions take place in the infected cell, leading to the production of new virions. The virus modulates the host cellular machinery in order to support its life cycle, while counteracting intracellular defense mechanisms. We investigated the dynamic host response to HIV-1 infection by systematically measuring transcriptomic, proteomic, and phosphoproteomic expression changes in infected and uninfected SupT1 CD4+ T cells at five time points of the viral replication process. By means of a Gaussian mixed-effects model implemented in the new R/Bioconductor package TMixClust, we clustered host genes based on their temporal expression patterns. We identified a proteo-transcriptomic gene expression signature of 388 host genes specific for HIV-1 replication. Comprehensive functional analyses of these genes confirmed the previously described roles of some of the genes and revealed novel key virus-host interactions affecting multiple molecular processes within the host cell, including signal transduction, metabolism, cell cycle, and immune system. The results of our analysis are accessible through a freely available, dedicated and user-friendly R/Shiny application, called PEACHi2.0. This resource constitutes a catalogue of dynamic host responses to HIV-1 infection that provides a basis for a more comprehensive understanding of virus-host interactions.

Ribonuclease inhibitor 1 regulates erythropoiesis by controlling GATA1 translation.

Ribosomal proteins (RP) regulate specific gene expression by selectively translating subsets of mRNAs. Indeed, in Diamond-Blackfan anemia and 5q- syndrome, mutations in RP genes lead to a specific defect in erythroid gene translation and cause anemia. Little is known about the molecular mechanisms of selective mRNA translation and involvement of ribosomal-associated factors in this process. Ribonuclease inhibitor 1 (RNH1) is a ubiquitously expressed protein that binds to and inhibits pancreatic-type ribonucleases. Here, we report that RNH1 binds to ribosomes and regulates erythropoiesis by controlling translation of the erythroid transcription factor GATA1. Rnh1-deficient mice die between embryonic days E8.5 and E10 due to impaired production of mature erythroid cells from progenitor cells. In Rnh1-deficient embryos, mRNA levels of Gata1 are normal, but GATA1 protein levels are decreased. At the molecular level, we found that RNH1 binds to the 40S subunit of ribosomes and facilitates polysome formation on Gata1 mRNA to confer transcript-specific translation. Further, RNH1 knockdown in human CD34+ progenitor cells decreased erythroid differentiation without affecting myelopoiesis. Our results reveal an unsuspected role for RNH1 in the control of GATA1 mRNA translation and erythropoiesis.

Fine-Tuning of Optimal TCR Signaling in Tumor-Redirected CD8 T Cells by Distinct TCR Affinity-Mediated Mechanisms.

Redirecting CD8 T cell immunity with self/tumor-specific affinity-matured T cell receptors (TCRs) is a promising approach for clinical adoptive T cell therapy, with the aim to improve treatment efficacy. Despite numerous functional-based studies, little is known about the characteristics of TCR signaling (i.e., intensity, duration, and amplification) and the regulatory mechanisms underlying optimal therapeutic T cell responses. Using a panel of human SUP-T1 and primary CD8 T cells engineered with incremental affinity TCRs against the cancer-testis antigen NY-ESO-1, we found that upon activation, T cells with optimal-affinity TCRs generated intense and sustained proximal (CD3ζ, LCK) signals associated with distal (ERK1/2) amplification-gain and increased function. In contrast, in T cells with very high affinity TCRs, signal initiation was rapid and strong yet only transient, resulting in poor MAPK activation and low proliferation potential even at high antigen stimulation dose. Under resting conditions, the levels of surface TCR/CD3ε, CD8ß, and CD28 expression and of CD3ζ phosphorylation were significantly reduced in those hyporesponsive cells, suggesting the presence of TCR affinity-related activation thresholds. We also show that SHP phosphatases were involved along the TCR affinity gradient, but displayed spatially distinct regulatory roles. While PTPN6/SHP-1 phosphatase activity controlled TCR signaling initiation and subsequent amplification by counteracting CD3ζ and ERK1/2 phosphorylation, PTPN11/SHP-2 augmented MAPK activation without affecting proximal TCR signaling. Together, our findings indicate that optimal TCR signaling can be finely tuned by TCR affinity-dependent SHP-1 and SHP-2 activity, and this may readily be determined at the TCR/CD3 complex level. We propose that these TCR affinity-associated regulations represent potential protective mechanisms preventing high affinity TCR-mediated autoimmune diseases.

Chemical crosslinking and mass spectrometry to elucidate the topology of integral membrane proteins.

Here we made an attempt to obtain partial structural information on the topology of multispan integral membrane proteins of yeast by isolating organellar membranes, removing peripheral membrane proteins at pH 11.5 and introducing chemical crosslinks between vicinal amino acids either using homo- or hetero-bifunctional crosslinkers. Proteins were digested with specific proteases and the products analysed by mass spectrometry. Dedicated software tools were used together with filtering steps optimized to remove false positive crosslinks. In proteins of known structure, crosslinks were found only between loops residing on the same side of the membrane. As may be expected, crosslinks were mainly found in very abundant proteins. Our approach seems to hold to promise to yield low resolution topological information for naturally very abundant or strongly overexpressed proteins with relatively little effort. Here, we report novel XL-MS-based topology data for 17 integral membrane proteins (Akr1p, Fks1p, Gas1p, Ggc1p, Gpt2p, Ifa38p, Ist2p, Lag1p, Pet9p, Pma1p, Por1p, Sct1p, Sec61p, Slc1p, Spf1p, Vph1p, Ybt1p).

Proteomic interrogation of HSP90 and insights for medical research.

INTRODUCTION: Heat shock protein 90 (HSP90) regulates protein homeostasis in eukaryotes. As a 'professional interactor', HSP90 binds to and chaperones many proteins and has both housekeeping and disease-related functions but its regulation remains in part elusive. HSP90 complexes are a target for therapy, notably against cancer, and several inhibitors are currently in clinical trials. Proteomic studies have revealed the vast interaction network of HSP90 and, in doing so, the extent of cellular processes the chaperone takes part in, especially in yeast and human cells. Furthermore, small-molecule inhibitors were used to probe the global impact of its inhibition on the proteome. Areas covered: We review here recent HSP90-related interactomics and total proteome studies and their relevance for research on cancer, neurodegenerative and pathogen diseases. Expert commentary: Proteomics experiments are our best chance to identify the context-dependent global proteome of HSP90 and thus uncover and understand its disease-specific biology. However, understanding the complexity of HSP90 will require multiple complementary, quantitative approaches and novel bioinformatics to translate interactions into ordered functional networks and pathways. Developing therapies will necessitate more knowledge on HSP90 complexes and networks with disease relevance and on total proteome changes induced by their perturbation. Most work has been done in cancer, thus a lot remains to be done in the context of other diseases.

MsViz: A Graphical Software Tool for In-Depth Manual Validation and Quantitation of Post-translational Modifications.

Mass spectrometry (MS) has become the tool of choice for the large scale identification and quantitation of proteins and their post-translational modifications (PTMs). This development has been enabled by powerful software packages for the automated analysis of MS data. While data on PTMs of thousands of proteins can nowadays be readily obtained, fully deciphering the complexity and combinatorics of modification patterns even on a single protein often remains challenging. Moreover, functional investigation of PTMs on a protein of interest requires validation of the localization and the accurate quantitation of its changes across several conditions, tasks that often still require human evaluation. Software tools for large scale analyses are highly efficient but are rarely conceived for interactive, in-depth exploration of data on individual proteins. We here describe MsViz, a web-based and interactive software tool that supports manual validation of PTMs and their relative quantitation in small- and medium-size experiments. The tool displays sequence coverage information, peptide-spectrum matches, tandem MS spectra and extracted ion chromatograms through a single, highly intuitive interface. We found that MsViz greatly facilitates manual data inspection to validate PTM location and quantitate modified species across multiple samples.

Nuclear Proteomics Uncovers Diurnal Regulatory Landscapes in Mouse Liver.

Diurnal oscillations of gene expression controlled by the circadian clock and its connected feeding rhythm enable organisms to coordinate their physiologies with daily environmental cycles. While available techniques yielded crucial insights into regulation at the transcriptional level, much less is known about temporally controlled functions within the nucleus and their regulation at the protein level. Here, we quantified the temporal nuclear accumulation of proteins and phosphoproteins from mouse liver by SILAC proteomics. We identified around 5,000 nuclear proteins, over 500 of which showed a diurnal accumulation. Parallel analysis of the nuclear phosphoproteome enabled the inference of the temporal activity of kinases accounting for rhythmic phosphorylation. Many identified rhythmic proteins were parts of nuclear complexes involved in transcriptional regulation, ribosome biogenesis, DNA repair, and the cell cycle and its potentially associated diurnal rhythm of hepatocyte polyploidy. Taken together, these findings provide unprecedented insights into the diurnal regulatory landscape of the mouse liver nucleus.