Systematic Review: White Matter Microstructural Organization in Adolescents With Depression.

Objective: A growing body of literature has focused on the neural mechanisms of depression. Our goal was to conduct a systematic review on the white matter microstructural differences in adolescents with depressive disorders vs adolescents without depressive disorders. Method: We searched PubMed and PsycINFO for publications on August 3, 2022 (original search conducted in July 2021). The review was registered on PROSPERO (registration number: CRD42021268200), and the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) guidelines were followed. Eligible studies were original research papers comparing diffusion tensor/spectrum imaging findings in adolescents with vs without depression (originally ages 12-19 years, later expanded to 11-21 years). Studies were excluded if they focused on depression exclusively in the context of another condition, used only dimensional depressive symptom assessment(s), or used the same dataset as another included publication. Results: The search yielded 575 unique records, of which 14 full-text papers were included (824 adolescents with depression and 686 without depression). The following white matter regions showed significant differences in fractional anisotropy in at least 3 studies: uncinate fasciculus, cingulum, anterior corona radiata, inferior fronto-occipital fasciculus, and corpus callosum (genu and body). Most studies reported decreased, rather than increased, fractional anisotropy in adolescents with depression. Limitations include the possibility for selective reporting bias and risk of imprecision, given the small sample sizes in some studies. Conclusion: Our systematic review suggests aberrant white matter microstructure in limbic-cortical-striatal-thalamic circuits, and the corpus callosum, in adolescents with depression. Future research should focus on developmental trajectories in depression, identifying sources of heterogeneity and integrating findings across imaging modalities.

Maltreatment history and reasons for self-injurious behavior among adolescents engaged in non-suicidal self-injury versus adolescents who attempted suicide.

OBJECTIVE: Self-injurious behavior (SIB) is a significant public health concern in the United States, especially among adolescents with histories of maltreatment. This study compared maltreatment characteristics and reasons for SIB between three homogenous samples of adolescents with either: (1) non-suicidal self-injury (NSSI); (2) suicide attempt/s (SA), and (3) typically developing controls (TDC). METHOD: Participants (N = 124) aged 13-17 years completed questionnaires about their maltreatment and SIB histories. RESULTS: Maltreatment rates were as follows: 90% NSSI group, 76% SA group, and 40% TDC group. Adolescents in the NSSI group reported significantly higher rates of emotional neglect compared to the SA group. Maltreated adolescents in the NSSI and SA groups reported the same top three SIB reasons: (1) get rid of bad feelings, (2) mental state at the time, and (3) problems with family. However, maltreated NSSI participants were significantly more likely to engage in SIB for emotion regulation reasons than maltreated SA participants, who were more likely to engage in SIB for interpersonal reasons. Physical neglect and physical abuse also arose as significant predictors of specific SIB reasons. CONCLUSIONS: Our findings help elucidate the maltreatment profiles and reasons for SIB among adolescents engaged in NSSI or SA. Specific maltreatment experiences may also influence the reasons why adolescents engaged in SIB.

Relationship between cognitive flexibility and subsequent course of mood symptoms and suicidal ideation in young adults with childhood-onset bipolar disorder.

Neurocognitive deficits, such as cognitive flexibility impairments, are common in bipolar disorder (BD) and predict poor academic, occupational, and functional outcomes. However, the association between neurocognition and illness trajectory is not well understood, especially across developmental transitions. This study examined cognitive flexibility and subsequent mood symptom and suicidal ideation (SI) course in young adults with childhood-onset BD-I (with distinct mood episodes) vs. BD-not otherwise specified (BD-NOS) vs. typically-developing controls (TDCs). Sample included 93 young adults (ages 18-30) with prospectively verified childhood-onset DSM-IV BD-I (n = 34) or BD-NOS (n = 15) and TDCs (n = 44). Participants completed cross-sectional neuropsychological tasks and clinical measures. Then participants with BD completed longitudinal assessments of mood symptoms and SI at 6-month intervals (M = 39.18 ± 16.57 months of follow-up data). Analyses included ANOVAs, independent-samples t tests, chi-square analyses, and multiple linear regressions. Participants with BD-I had significant deficits in cognitive flexibility and executive functioning vs. BD-NOS and TDCs, and impaired spatial working memory vs. TDCs only. Two significant BD subtype-by-cognitive flexibility interactions revealed that cognitive flexibility deficits were associated with subsequent percentage of time depressed and with SI in BD-I but not BD-NOS, regardless of other neurocognitive factors (full-scale IQ, executive functioning, spatial working memory) and clinical factors (current and prior mood and SI symptoms, age of BD onset, global functioning, psychiatric medications, comorbidity). Thus, cognitive flexibility may be an important etiological brain/behavior mechanism, prognostic indicator, and intervention target for childhood-onset BD-I, as this deficit appears to endure into young adulthood and is associated with worse prognosis for subsequent depression and SI.

Brief Report: Risk and Protective Factors Associated with Depressive Symptoms among Autistic Adults.

Autistic individuals are at risk for developing depression though the risk and protective factors for co-occurring depression in autistic individuals are not yet fully characterized. In this retrospective medical chart review study, we explored factors associated with self-reported depressive symptoms (Patient Health Questionnaire-9) in autistic adults (N = 58). For autistic adults, engagement in one or more activities (recreational, educational and/or vocational) was associated with less severe depressive symptoms (Mann-Whitney U test, p = 0.006); and reported family history of depression/anxiety was associated with increased likelihood of suicidal ideation (Chi-square test, p = 0.027). Promotion of community-based activities and family support systems may be an integral part of creating effective treatment plans for depressive symptoms in autistic adults.

Facial emotion recognition and mood symptom course in young adults with childhood-onset bipolar disorder.

Facial emotion recognition deficits are common in bipolar disorder (BD) and associated with impairment. However, the relationship between facial emotion recognition and mood course is not well understood. This study examined facial emotion recognition and subsequent mood symptoms in young adults with childhood-onset BD versus typically developing controls (TDCs). The sample included 116 young adults (ages 18-30, 58% male, 78% White) with prospectively verified childhood-onset BD (n = 52) and TDCs (n = 64). At baseline, participants completed a facial emotion recognition task (Diagnostic Analysis of Non-Verbal Accuracy-2) and clinical measures. Then, participants with BD completed mood symptom assessments every 6 months (M = 8.7 ± 5.2 months) over two years. Analyses included independent-samples t tests and mixed-effects regression models. Participants with BD made significantly more recognition errors for child expressions than TDCs. There were no significant between-group differences for recognition errors for adult expressions, or errors for specific child or adult emotional expressions. Participants had moderate baseline mood symptoms. Significant time-by-facial emotion recognition interactions revealed more recognition errors for child emotional expressions predicted lower baseline mania and stable/consistent trajectory; fewer recognition errors for child expressions predicted higher baseline mania and decreasing trajectory. In addition, more recognition errors for adult sad expressions predicted stable/consistent depression trajectory and decreasing mania; fewer recognition errors for adult sad expressions predicted decreasing depression trajectory and stable/consistent mania. Effects remained when controlling for baseline demographics and clinical variables. Facial emotion recognition may be an important brain/behavior mechanism, prognostic indicator, and intervention target for childhood-onset BD, which endures into young adulthood and is associated with mood trajectory.

White matter correlates of cognitive flexibility in youth with bipolar disorder and typically developing children and adolescents.

Prior studies using behavioral tasks and neuroimaging have shown that children and adolescents with bipolar disorder (BD) have deficits in cognitive flexibility (CF)-defined as adaptation to changing rewards and punishments. However, no study, to our knowledge, has examined the white matter microstructural correlates of CF in youth with BD. To address this gap, we examined the relationship between CF assessed with the Cambridge Neuropsychological Testing Automated Battery (CANTAB)'s Intra-Extra Dimensional Set Shift task (ID/ED) and diffusion tensor imaging analyzed with FSL's preprocessing tools and Tract-Based Spatial Statistics (TBSS). We found a significantly different relationship between microstructural integrity of multiple white matter regions and CF performance in BD (n=28) and age-matched typically developing control (TDC) youths (n=26). Evaluation of the slopes of linear regressions in BD vs. TDC (ID/ED Simple Reversal error rate vs. fractional anisotropy) revealed significantly different slopes across the groups, indicating an aberrant relationship between CF and underlying white matter microstructure in youth with BD. These results underscore the importance of examining specific CF-neuroimaging relationships in BD youth. Future longitudinal studies could seek to define the white matter microstructural trajectories in BD vs. TDC, and relative to CF deficits and BD illness course.

Do styles of emotion dysregulation differentiate adolescents engaging in non-suicidal self-injury from those attempting suicide?

Emotion dysregulation is implicated in both suicide attempts (SA) and non-suicidal self-injury (NSSI). However, little is known about how emotion dysregulation may differ between adolescents who have made an SA from those engaged in NSSI. We sought to address this gap by comparing emotion dysregulation profiles across three homogenous groups of adolescents (1) SA-only (2) NSSI-only (3) and typically developing controls (TDCs). Mean comparisons suggest that adolescents with a history of NSSI reported significantly lower distress tolerance and higher emotional reactivity when compared to adolescents who made an SA. After controlling for shared variance across emotion dysregulation measures, parent report of affective lability was the only scale to uniquely distinguish between NSSI and SA groups. Accurately distinguishing emotion dysregulation patterns across self-injurious groups has practical implications towards assessment, treatment, course of illness, and prevention.

Associations between neurodevelopmental genes, neuroanatomy, and ultra high risk symptoms of psychosis in 22q11.2 deletion syndrome.

22q11.2 deletion syndrome is a neurogenetic disorder resulting in the deletion of over 40 genes. Up to 40% of individuals with 22q11.2DS develop schizophrenia, though little is known about the underlying mechanisms. We hypothesized that allelic variation in functional polymorphisms in seven genes unique to the deleted region would affect lobar brain volumes, which would predict risk for psychosis in youth with 22q11.2DS. Participants included 56 individuals (30 males) with 22q11.2DS. Anatomic MR images were collected and processed using Freesurfer. Participants were genotyped for 10 SNPs in the COMT, DGCR8, GNB1L, PIK4CA, PRODH, RTN4R, and ZDHHC8 genes. All subjects were assessed for ultra high risk symptoms of psychosis. Allelic variation of the rs701428 SNP of RTN4R was significantly associated with volumetric differences in gray matter of the lingual gyrus and cuneus of the occipital lobe. Moreover, occipital gray matter volumes were robustly associated with ultra high risk symptoms of psychosis in the presence of the G allele of rs701428. Our results suggest that RTN4R, a relatively under-studied gene at the 22q11 locus, constitutes a susceptibility gene for psychosis in individuals with this syndrome through its alteration of the architecture of the brain. © 2017 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.

Abnormalities in brain white matter in adolescents with 22q11.2 deletion syndrome and psychotic symptoms.

BACKGROUND: 22q11.2 Deletion Syndrome (22q11DS) is considered to be a promising cohort to explore biomarkers of schizophrenia risk based on a 30 % probability of developing schizophrenia in adulthood. In this study, we investigated abnormalities in the microstructure of white matter in adolescents with 22q11DS and their specificity to prodromal symptoms of schizophrenia. METHODS: Diffusion Magnetic Resonance Imaging (dMRI) data were acquired from 50 subjects with 22q11DS (9 with and 41 without prodromal psychotic symptoms), and 47 matched healthy controls (mean age 18 +/-2 years). DMRI measures, including fractional anisotropy (FA), mean diffusivity (MD), axial diffusivity (AD), and radial diffusivity (RD) were calculated and compared between groups using the Tract Based Spatial Statistics (TBSS) method. Additionally, correlations between dMRI measures and scores on positive symptoms were performed. RESULTS: Reductions in MD, AD and RD (but not FA) were found in the corpus callosum (CC), left and right superior longitudinal fasciculus (SLF), and left and right corona radiata in the entire 22q11DS group. In addition, the 22q11DS subgroup with prodromal symptoms showed reductions in AD and MD, but no changes in RD when compared to the non-prodromal subgroup, in CC, right SLF, right corona radiata and right internal capsule. Finally, AD values in these tracts correlated with the scores on the psychosis subscale. CONCLUSION: Microstructural abnormalities in brain white matter are present in adolescent subjects with prodromal psychotic symptoms.

Longitudinal study of premorbid adjustment in 22q11.2 deletion (velocardiofacial) syndrome and association with psychosis.

Velocardiofacial syndrome, also known as 22q11.2 deletion syndrome (22q11DS), is associated with an increased risk of major psychiatric disorders, including schizophrenia. The emergence of psychotic symptoms in individuals with schizophrenia in the general population is often preceded by a premorbid period of poor or worsening social and/or academic functioning. Our current study evaluated premorbid adjustment (via the Cannon-Spoor Premorbid Adjustment Scale [PAS]) and psychotic symptoms (via the Structured Interview for Prodromal Symptoms and the Kiddie Schedule for Affective Disorders and Schizophrenia for School-Age Children-Present and Lifetime Version) in youth with 22q11DS (N = 96), unaffected siblings (N = 40), and community controls (N = 50). The PAS scores indicated greater maladjustment during all developmental periods in individuals with 22q11DS compared to the controls. Many participants with 22q11DS had chronically poor (n = 33) or deteriorating (n = 6) PAS scores. In 22q11DS, chronically poor PAS trajectories and poor childhood and early adolescence academic domain and total PAS scores significantly increased the risk of prodromal symptoms or overt psychosis. Taking into account the catechol-O-methyltransferase (COMT) genotype, the best predictor of (prodromal) psychosis was the early adolescence academic domain score, which yielded higher sensitivity and specificity in the subgroup of youth with 22q11DS and the high-activity (valine) allele. PAS scores may help identify individuals at higher risk for psychosis.

Longitudinal study of cerebral surface morphology in youth with 22q11.2 deletion syndrome, and association with positive symptoms of psychosis.

BACKGROUND: 22q11.2 deletion syndrome (22q11DS) is a genetic disorder that greatly increases risk of developing schizophrenia. We previously characterized cerebral surface morphology trajectories from late childhood to mid adolescence in a cohort of youth with 22q11DS. Herein, we extend the study period into early adulthood, and describe further the trajectories associated with severe psychiatric symptoms in this cohort. METHODS: Participants included 76 youth with 22q11DS and 30 unaffected siblings, assessed at three timepoints, during which high resolution, anatomic magnetic resonance images were acquired. High-dimensional, nonlinear warping algorithms were applied to images in order to derive characteristics of cerebral surface morphology for each participant at each timepoint. Repeated-measures, linear regressions using a mixed model were conducted, while covarying for age and sex. RESULTS: Alterations in cerebral surface morphology during late adolescence/early adulthood in individuals with 22q11DS were observed in the lateral frontal, orbitofrontal, temporal, parietal, occipital, and cerebellar regions. An Age x Diagnosis interaction revealed that relative to unaffected siblings, individuals with 22q11DS showed age-related surface protrusions in the prefrontal cortex (which remained stable or increased during early adulthood), and surface indentations in posterior regions (which seemed to level off during late adolescence). Symptoms of psychosis were associated with a trajectory of surface indentations in the orbitofrontal and parietal regions. CONCLUSIONS: These results advance our understanding of cerebral maturation in individuals with 22q11DS, and provide clinically relevant information about the psychiatric phenotype associated with the longitudinal trajectory of cortical surface morphology in youth with this genetic syndrome.

White matter microstructural abnormalities of the cingulum bundle in youths with 22q11.2 deletion syndrome: associations with medication, neuropsychological function, and prodromal symptoms of psychosis.

BACKGROUND: The 22q11.2 deletion syndrome (22q11.2DS) is regarded as an etiologically homogenous model for understanding neuroanatomic disruptions associated with a high risk for schizophrenia. This study utilized diffusion tensor imaging (DTI) to analyze white matter microstructure in individuals with 22q11.2DS. We focused on the cingulum bundle (CB), previously shown to be disrupted in patients with schizophrenia and associated with symptoms of psychosis. METHODS: White matter microstructure was assessed in the anterior, superior, and posterior CB using the tractography algorithm in DTIStudio. Neuropsychological function, presence of prodromal symptoms of psychosis, and medication history were assessed in all participants. RESULTS: Relative to controls, young adults with 22q11.2DS showed alterations in most DTI metrics of the CB. Alterations were associated with positive prodromal symptoms of psychosis. However, when individuals with 22q11.2DS were divided by usage of antipsychotics/mood stabilizers, the medicated and non-medicated groups differed significantly in axial diffusivity of the anterior CB and in fractional anisotropy of the superior CB. DTI metrics did not differ between the medicated group and the control group. CONCLUSIONS: Results suggest that the microstructure of the CB is altered in individuals with 22q11.2DS, and that those alterations may underlie positive prodromal symptoms of psychosis. Our findings further provide preliminary evidence that antipsychotic/mood stabilizer usage may have a reparative effect on white matter microstructure in prodromal 22q11.2DS, independent of the potential effects of psychosis. Future studies of white matter pathology in individuals with 22q11.2DS should test for potential effects of medication on white matter microstructure.

Association between autism spectrum disorder in individuals with velocardiofacial (22q11.2 deletion) syndrome and PRODH and COMT genotypes.

Velocardiofacial (VCFS; 22q11.2 deletion) syndrome is a genetic disorder that results from a hemizygous deletion of the q11.2 region on chromosome 22, and is associated with greatly increased risk for psychiatric disorders, including autism spectrum disorder (ASD) and schizophrenia. There is emerging evidence for the involvement of catechol-O-methyltransferase (COMT) and proline dehydrogenase (oxidase) 1 (PRODH) in the psychiatric phenotype of individuals with VCFS. Here, we tested the hypothesis that PRODH and COMT are associated with ASD in youths with VCFS. We found that individuals with VCFS and the low-activity alleles of both PRODH and COMT (rs4819756A and rs4680A) were more likely to present with ASD as compared with individuals with VCFS and the high-activity alleles of these genes [P<0.05; odds ratio=6.0 (95% confidence interval=1.27-28.26; N=87)]. Our results suggest that PRODH and COMT may interact to contribute to the ASD phenotype in individuals with VCFS.

Is child intelligence associated with parent and sibling intelligence in individuals with developmental disorders? An investigation in youth with 22q11.2 deletion (velo-cardio-facial) syndrome.

Children with 22q11.2 deletion syndrome (22q11DS), a copy-number variation (CNV) genetic disorder, demonstrate a great deal of variability in IQ scores and are at particular risk for cognitive difficulties, with up to 45% experiencing intellectual disability. This study explored the IQ relationship between individuals with 22q11DS, their parents and their siblings. Participants included individuals with 22q11DS, unaffected siblings and community controls, who participated in a longitudinal study of 22q11DS. Significant associations between proband and relative (parent, sibling) IQ scores were found. Results suggest that the cognitive functioning of first-degree relatives could be a useful marker of general genetic background and/or environmental effects, and can explain some of the large phenotypic variability in 22q11DS. These findings underscore the importance of including siblings and parents in studies of 22q11DS whenever possible.

White matter abnormalities in 22q11.2 deletion syndrome: preliminary associations with the Nogo-66 receptor gene and symptoms of psychosis.

BACKGROUND: This study utilized diffusion tensor imaging (DTI) to analyze white matter tractography in the anterior limb of the internal capsule (ALIC), fornix, and uncinate fasciculus (UF) of individuals with 22q11.2 deletion syndrome and controls. Aberrations in these tracts have been previously associated with schizophrenia. With up to 25% of individuals with 22q11.2DS developing schizophrenia in adulthood, we hypothesized reduction in structural integrity of these tracts, including an association with prodromal symptoms of psychosis. We further predicted an association between allelic variation in a functional polymorphism of the Nogo-66 receptor gene and 22q11.2DS white matter integrity. METHODS: Tractography was conducted using fiber assignment by streamline tracking algorithm in DTI Studio. Subjects were genotyped for the rs701428 SNP of the Nogo-66 receptor gene, and assessed for presence of prodromal symptoms. RESULTS: We found significant group differences between 22q11.2DS and controls in DTI metrics for all three tracts. DTI metrics of ALIC and UF were associated with prodromal symptoms in 22q11.2DS. Further, ALIC DTI metrics were associated with allelic variation of the rs701428 SNP of the Nogo-66 receptor gene in 22q11.2DS. CONCLUSIONS: Alterations in DTI metrics suggest white matter microstructural anomalies of the ALIC, fornix, and UF in 22q11.2DS. Structural differences in ALIC appear to be associated with the Nogo-66 receptor gene, which has been linked to myelin-mediated axonal growth inhibition. Moreover, the association between psychosis symptoms and ALIC and UF metrics suggests that the Nogo-66 receptor gene may represent a susceptibility gene for psychosis through its disruption of white matter microstructure and myelin-associated axonal growth.

The retinotopic organization of striate cortex is well predicted by surface topology.

In 1918, Gordon Holmes combined observations of visual-field scotomas across brain-lesioned soldiers to produce a schematic map of the projection of the visual field upon the striate cortex. One limit to the precision of his result, and the mapping of anatomy to retinotopy generally, is the substantial individual variation in the size, volumetric position, and cortical magnification of area V1. When viewed within the context of the curvature of the cortical surface, however, the boundaries of striate cortex fall at a consistent location across individuals. We asked whether the surface topology of the human brain can be used to accurately predict the internal, retinotopic function of striate cortex as well. We used fMRI to measure polar angle and eccentricity in 25 participants and combined their maps within a left-right, transform-symmetric representation of the cortical surface. These data were then fit using a deterministic, algebraic model of visual-field representation. We found that an anatomical image alone can be used to predict the retinotopic organization of striate cortex for an individual with accuracy equivalent to 10-25 min of functional mapping. This indicates tight developmental linkage of structure and function within a primary, sensory cortical area.

Deficits in mental state attributions in individuals with 22q11.2 deletion syndrome (velo-cardio-facial syndrome).

Velo-cardio-facial syndrome (VCFS; 22q11.2 deletion syndrome) results from a genetic mutation that increases risk for Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD). We compared Theory of Mind (ToM) skills in 63 individuals with VCFS (25% with an ASD diagnosis) and 43 typically developing controls, and investigated the relationship of ToM to reciprocal social behavior. We administered a video-based task to assess mentalizing at two sites University of California, Los Angeles (UCLA) and State University of New York (SUNY) Upstate Medical University. The videos depicted interactions representing complex mental states (ToM condition), or simple movements (Random condition). Verbal descriptions of the videos were rated for Intentionality (i.e. mentalizing) and Appropriateness. Using Repeated Measures analysis of variance (ANOVA), we assessed the effects of VCFS and ASD on Intentionality and Appropriateness, and the relationship of mentalizing to Social Responsiveness Scale (SRS) scores. Results indicated that individuals with VCFS overall had lower Intentionality and Appropriateness scores than controls for ToM but not for Random scenes. In the SUNY sample, individuals with VCFS, both with and without ASD, performed more poorly than controls on the ToM condition; however, in the UCLA sample, only individuals with VCFS without ASD performed significantly worse than controls on the ToM condition. Controlling for site and age, performance on the ToM condition was significantly correlated with SRS scores. Individuals with VCFS, regardless of an ASD diagnosis, showed impairments in the spontaneous attribution of mental states to abstract visual stimuli, which may underlie real-life problems with social interactions. A better understanding of the social deficits in VCFS is essential for the development of targeted behavioral interventions.

Atlas-based white matter analysis in individuals with velo-cardio-facial syndrome (22q11.2 deletion syndrome) and unaffected siblings.

BACKGROUND: Velo-cardio-facial syndrome (VCFS, MIM#192430, 22q11.2 Deletion Syndrome) is a genetic disorder caused by a deletion of about 40 genes at the q11.2 band of one copy of chromosome 22. Individuals with VCFS present with deficits in cognition and social functioning, high risk of psychiatric disorders, volumetric reductions in gray and white matter (WM) and some alterations of the WM microstructure. The goal of the current study was to characterize the WM microstructural differences in individuals with VCFS and unaffected siblings, and the correlation of WM microstructure with neuropsychological performance. We hypothesized that individuals with VCFS would have decreased indices of WM microstructure (fractional anisotropy (FA), axial diffusivity (AD) and radial diffusivity (RD)), particularly in WM tracts to the frontal lobe, and that these measures would be correlated with cognitive functioning. METHODS: Thirty-three individuals with VCFS (21 female) and 16 unaffected siblings (8 female) participated in DTI scanning and neuropsychological testing. We performed an atlas-based analysis, extracted FA, AD, and RD measures for 54 WM tracts (27 in each hemisphere) for each participant, and used MANOVAs to compare individuals with VCFS to siblings. For WM tracts that were statistically significantly different between VCFS and siblings (pFDR <0.05), we assessed the correlations between DTI and neuropsychological measures. RESULTS: In VCFS individuals as compared to unaffected siblings, we found decreased FA in the uncinate fasciculus, and decreased AD in multiple WM tracts (bilateral superior and posterior corona radiata, dorsal cingulum, inferior fronto-occipital fasciculus, superior longitudinal fasciculus, superior cerebellar peduncle, posterior thalamic radiation, and left anterior corona radiata, retrolenticular part of the internal capsule, external capsule, sagittal stratum). We also found significant correlations of AD with measures of executive function, IQ, working memory, and/or social cognition. CONCLUSIONS: Our results suggest that individuals with VCFS display abnormal WM connectivity in a widespread cerebro-anatomical network, involving tracts from/to all cerebral lobes and the cerebellum. Future studies could focus on the WM developmental trajectory in VCFS, the association of WM alterations with psychiatric disorders, and the effects of candidate 22q11.2 genes on WM anomalies.