In vitro anti-tumoral and immunomodulatory effects of acidic polysaccharides isolated from the fungus Gloeosoma mirabile.

Polysaccharides from wood-rooting fungi have attracted attention due to their broad pharmacological properties. Herein, we report the antitumor and immunomodulatory activities of acid polysaccharides isolated from fungi Gloeosoma mirabile. The polysaccharide extracts displayed significant antiproliferative activity against cancer cell lines (MCF-7, HCT-116, U-937) in a dose-dependent manner and induction of IL-6 in macrophage RAW 264.7. Furthermore, flow cytometry analysis showed that high polysaccharide concentrations induced apoptosis by 83% in HL-60 cells. Based on gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS) and Fourier transform infra-red (FT-IR) spectroscopy studies, acidic polysaccharides from G. mirabile were mainly composed of arabinose, α-D-galactopyranose and methyl ß-D-galactopyranoside.

Effect of Huntiella decorticans and drought on Nothofagus dombeyi seedlings.

In the temperate forests of Patagonia, Argentina, Nothofagus dombeyi, commonly known as Coihue, has shown sensitivity to intense drought events, leading to mortality. Studies have been conducted on Coihue decline and mortality using a variety of approaches, including the role of extreme heat waves and drought, pests and pathogens, particularly the fungus Huntiella decorticans. This work aimed to evaluate survival, vitality, necrosis extension and growth response of inoculated and non-inoculated Coihue seedlings from different provenances exposed to different soil moisture levels. To achieve this goal, 96 Coihue seedlings from 2 different provenances were assigned to 8 different experimental treatments. Treatments were composed of the presence or absence of H. decorticans and different soil moisture content conditions, dry, wet and the exposure to dry condition at different times of the experiment. Both dry conditions and H. decorticans had negative effects on the survival and growth rate of Coihue. The combination of both factors resulted in 100 % mortality, regardless of the plants' geographical provenances. Mortality began to be observed 3 months after pathogen inoculation, during the warmest month. Necrosis extension produced by the pathogen was similar for most of the inoculated treatments. The treatment under wet condition during the experiment but subjected to dry condition in the previous growing season presented lower necrosis extension (8.4 ±â€…3.2 %), than the other treatments. The radial increase was also affected by the treatments and geographical provenance, being those plants exposed to dry conditions which grew less (0.19 ±â€…0.21 mm). This study enhances our understanding of the plant-pathogen interaction. According to our results, Coihue may become more susceptible to mortality, when H. decorticans and water deficit conditions act synergistically.

Diversity of Agaricomycetes in southern South America and their bioactive natural products.

Fungi have a unique metabolic plasticity allowing them to produce a wide range of natural products. Since the discovery of penicillin, an antibiotic of fungal origin, substantial efforts have been devoted globally to search for fungal-derived natural bioactive products. Andean region forests represent one of the few undisturbed ecosystems in the world with little human intervention. While these forests display a rich biological diversity, mycological and chemical studies in these environments have been scarce. This review aims to summarise all the efforts regarding the chemical or bioactivity analyses of Agaricomycetes (Basidiomycota) from southern South America environments. Overall, herein we report a total of 147 fungal species, 21 of them showing chemical characterisation and/or biological activity. In terms of chemical cores, furans, chlorinated phenol derivatives, polyenes, lactones, terpenes and himanimides have been reported. These natural products displayed a range of biological activities including antioxidant, antimicrobial, antifungal, neuroprotective and osteoclast-forming suppressing effects.

In vitro cytotoxic capacity against tumor cell lines and antioxidant activity of acidic polysaccharides isolated from the Andean Patagonian fungus Phylloporia boldo.

Fungal polysaccharides possess a broad biological activity, including cytotoxic and antioxidant activities. This work aimed to evaluate the cytotoxic and antioxidant activity of the acidic polysaccharides of Phylloporia boldo strain (named PBAP40). Cytotoxic activity of polysaccharide was evaluated determining the viability of three tumor cell lines by MTT assay. The effect of acidic polysaccharide on the cell cycle of HL-60 cell line was evaluated by flow cytometry, and the antioxidant activity was determined by DPPH and ABTS assays. PBAP40 showed cytotoxic effects in tumor cell lines. Results suggest that P. boldo acidic polysaccharides arrested tumor cells in the cell cycle Sub G1 phase. The acidic polysaccharides of PBAP40 strain were not cytotoxic for the non-tumor cell line. PBAP40 also showed excellent antioxidant activity. The FT-IR analysis of the acidic polysaccharides indicated the presence of glucans bearing α- and ß- type glycosidic bonds.

Sapwood mycobiome varies across host, plant compartment and environments in Nothofagus forests from Northern Patagonia.

Global forests are increasingly being threatened by altered climatic conditions and increased attacks by pests and pathogens. The complex ecological interactions among pathogens, microbial communities, tree hosts and the environment are important drivers of forest dynamics. Little is known about the ecology of forest pathology and related microbial communities in temperate forests of the southern hemisphere. In this study, we used next-generation sequencing to characterize sapwood-inhabiting fungal communities in North Patagonian Nothofagus forests and assessed patterns of diversity of taxa and ecological guilds across climatic, site and host variables (health condition and compartment) as a contribution to Nothofagus autecology. The diversity patterns inferred through the metabarcoding analysis were similar to those obtained through culture-dependent approaches. However, we detected additional heterogeneity and greater richness with culture-free methods. Host species was the strongest driver of fungal community structure and composition, while host health status was the weakest. The relative impacts of site, season, plant compartment and health status were different for each tree species; these differences can be interpreted as a matter of water availability. For Nothofagus dombeyi, which is distributed across a wide range of climatic conditions, site was the strongest driver of community composition. The microbiome of N. pumilio varied more with season and temperature, a relevant factor for forest conservation in the present climate change scenario. Both species carry a number of potential fungal pathogens in their sapwood, whether they exhibit symptoms or not. Our results provide insight into the diversity of fungi associated with the complex pathobiome of the dominant Nothofagus species in southern South America.

Los bosques del mundo están cada vez más amenazados por las condiciones climáticas alteradas y el aumento de los ataques de plagas y patógenos. Las complejas interacciones ecológicas entre los patógenos, las comunidades microbianas, los árboles hospedantes y el medio ambiente son impulsores importantes de la dinámica forestal. Poco se sabe sobre la ecología de la patología forestal y las comunidades microbianas relacionadas en los bosques templados del hemisferio sur. En este estudio, utilizamos la secuenciación Illumina para caracterizar las comunidades de hongos que habitan en la albura en los bosques de Nothofagus de la Patagonia Norte y evaluamos los patrones de diversidad de taxones y gremios ecológicos a través de variables climáticas, de sitio y de hospedante (identidad, condición de salud y compartimento) como una contribución a la autoecología de los Nothofagus. Los patrones de diversidad inferidos a través del análisis metabarcoding fueron similares a los obtenidos a través de enfoques dependientes de cultivo. Sin embargo, detectamos mayor heterogeneidad y mayor riqueza con métodos independientes de cultivo. La especie hospedante fue el modelador más fuerte de la estructura y composición de la comunidad fúngica, mientras que el estado de salud del hospedante fue el más débil. El impacto relativo del sitio, la estación, el compartimento y el estado de salud fueron diferentes para cada especie de árbol; estas diferencias pueden interpretarse en clave de disponibilidad de agua. Para N. dombeyi, que se distribuye a lo largo de una amplia gama de condiciones climáticas, el sitio fue el principal modelador de la composición de la comunidad. El micobioma de Nothofagus pumilio varió más con la estación y la temperatura, un factor relevante para la conservación de los bosques en el escenario actual de cambio climático. Ambas especies portan una serie de patógenos fúngicos potenciales en su albura, ya sea que muestren síntomas o no. Nuestros resultados brindan una idea de la diversidad de hongos asociados con el complejo patobioma de las especies dominantes de Nothofagus en el sur de América del Sur.

Diversity and Evolution of Entomocorticium (Russulales, Peniophoraceae), a Genus of Bark Beetle Mutualists Derived from Free-Living, Wood Rotting Peniophora.

Symbiosis between insects and fungi arose multiple times during the evolution of both groups, and some of the most biologically diverse and economically important are mutualisms in which the insects cultivate and feed on fungi. Among these are bark beetles, whose ascomycetous cultivars are better known and studied than their frequently-overlooked and poorly understood basidiomycetous partners. In this study, we propose five new species of Entomocorticium, fungal mutualists in the Russulales (Basidiomycota) that are mutualistic symbionts of scolytine beetles. We have isolated these fungi from the beetle mycangia, which are structures adapted for the selective storage and transportation of fungal mutualists. Herein, we present the most complete phylogeny of the closely related genera Entomocorticium and Peniophora and provide insights into how an insect-associated taxon (Entomocorticium) evolved from within a wood-decaying, wind-dispersed lineage (Peniophora). Our results indicate that following a transition from angiosperms to gymnosperms, fungal domestication by beetles facilitated the evolution and diversification of Entomocorticium. We additionally propose four new species: Entomocorticium fibulatum Araújo, Li & Hulcr, sp. nov.; E. belizense Araújo, Li & Hulcr, sp. nov.; E. perryae Araújo, Li & Hulcr, sp. nov.; and E. macrovesiculatum Araújo, Li, Six & Hulcr, sp. nov. Our findings highlight the fact that insect-fungi associations remain an understudied field and that these associations harbor a large reservoir of novel fungal species.

Digging Up the Roots: Taxonomic and Phylogenetic Disentanglements in Corticiaceae s.s. (Corticiales, Basidiomycota) and Evolution of Nutritional Modes.

Corticiaceae is one of the traditional families of the Agaricomycetes and served for a long time as a convenient placement for basidiomycetes with a resupinate, corticioid form of fruiting body. Molecular studies have helped to assign many corticioid fungi to diverse families and orders; however, Corticiaceae still lacks a phylogenetic characterization and modern circumscription. Here, we provide the first comprehensive phylogenetic and taxonomic revision of the family Corticiaceae based on extensive type studies and sequences of nLSU, ITS, IGS, nSSU, and mtSSU regions. Our analyses support the recognition of ten monophyletic genera in the Corticiaceae, and show that nutritional mode is not a robust basis for generic delimitations in the family. The genus Mycobernardia and the species Corticium thailandicum, Erythricium vernum, and Marchandiomyces allantosporus are described as new to science, and five new combinations are proposed. Moreover, ancestral character state reconstruction revealed that saprotrophy is the plesiomorphic nutritional mode in the Corticiaceae, while several transitions have occurred to diverse nutritional modes in this family. Identification keys are provided to the genera in Corticiaceae s.s. as well as to the species in Corticium, Erythricium, Laetisaria, and Marchandiomyces.

Species and genera in Aleurodiscus sensu lato as viewed from the Southern Hemisphere.

Phylogenetic relationships of 12 species in Aleurodiscus sensu lato (Stereaceae, Russulales) described from the Patagonian forests of Chile and Argentina were investigated based on sequences of nuc rDNA internal transcribed spacer region ITS1-5.8S-ITS2 (ITS) and the D1-D2 domains of nuc 28S rDNA (28S). A new genus and a new species are presented, and 10 new combinations proposed. The genus Gloeosoma is shown to be phylogenetically well supported and morphologically circumscribed; it includes G. vitellinum (type species), G. mirabile, comb. nov., G. zealandicum, comb. nov., and Gloeosoma decorticans, sp. nov., which is newly described from Chile. The new genus Stereodiscus is proposed to accommodate a group of taxa characterized by an austral distribution and morphologically by smooth, thin-walled, amyloid basidiospores and a lack of gloeocystidia and acanthocystidia; three species develop Stereum-like basidiomata and two species present discoid ones. The new genus includes the species formerly known as Aleurodiscus antarcticus, A. limonisporus, A. parmuliformis, A. patagonicus, and A. triviale. Specimens of Stereodiscus parmuliformis (A. parmuliformis) from New Zealand (where it was originally described) and southern Chile are shown to be phylogenetically conspecific, which confirms its presence in Patagonia. Gloeosoma and Stereodiscus are shown to be distantly related to Aleurodiscus s. str. and other genera in Stereaceae. The new combinations Aleurocystidiellum bernicchiae, Aleurocystidiellum hallenbergii, and Acanthobasidium quilae are proposed based on morphology and phylogenetic analyses, and Aleurodiscus cerussatus is shown to be a cryptic species complex.

Competing sexual-asexual generic names in Agaricomycotina (Basidiomycota) with recommendations for use.

With the change to one scientific name for fungal taxa, generic names typified by species with sexual or asexual morph types are being evaluated to determine which names represent the same genus and thus compete for use. In this paper generic names of the Agaricomycotina (Basidiomycota) were evaluated to determine synonymy based on their type. Forty-seven sets of sexually and asexually typified names were determined to be congeneric and recommendations are made for which generic name to use. In most cases the principle of priority is followed. However, 16 generic names are recommended for use that do not have priority and thus need to be protected: Aleurocystis over Matula; Armillaria over Acurtis and Rhizomorpha; Asterophora over Ugola; Botryobasidium over Acladium, Allescheriella, Alysidium, Haplotrichum, Physospora, and Sporocephalium; Coprinellus over Ozonium; Coprinopsis over Rhacophyllus; Dendrocollybia over Sclerostilbum and Tilachlidiopsis; Diacanthodes over Bornetina; Echinoporia over Echinodia; Neolentinus over Digitellus; Postia over Ptychogaster; Riopa over Sporotrichum; Scytinostroma over Artocreas, Michenera, and Stereofomes; Tulasnella over Hormomyces; Typhula over Sclerotium; and Wolfiporia over Gemmularia and Pachyma. Nine species names are proposed for protection: Botryobasidium aureum, B. conspersum, B. croceum, B. simile, Pellicularia lembosporum (syn. B. lembosporum), Phanerochaete chrysosporium, Polyporus metamorphosus (syn. Riopa metamorphosa), Polyporus mylittae (syn. Laccocephalum mylittae), and Polyporus ptychogaster (syn. Postia ptychogaster). Two families are proposed for protection: Psathyrellaceae and Typhulaceae. Three new species names and 30 new combinations are established, and one lectotype is designated.

Poroid Hymenochaetaceae associated with trees showing wood-rot symptoms in the Garden Route National Park of South Africa.

Poroid Hymenochaetaceae associated with wood rots of trees in three timber-harvesting compartments of the Garden Route National Park (GRNP), South Africa, were investigated using multilocus phylogenetic analyses and morphology of the basidiomes. Results revealed the presence of 10 species belonging to five genera. Six of the species are known, but four are described as new. The known species include Fomitiporia capensis, Fuscoporia gilva, Sanghuangporus microcystideus, Tropicoporus tropicalis, Inonotus rickii, and Inonotus setuloso-croceus. The new species are described as Fomitiporia tsitsikamensis, Fulvifomes elaeodendri, Fuscoporia pulviniformis, and Phellinus guttiformis.

Biotransformation of grape pomace from Vitis labrusca by Peniophora albobadia LPSC # 285 (Basidiomycota).

Grape pomace from Vitis labrusca is an important sub-product of the "American table wine" industry. It is recalcitrant to degradation, and its accumulation is a serious problem with negative environmental impacts. We analyzed the ability of five white-rot fungi to transform this residue in-vitro. Mass loss and phenol removal in grape pomace treated with each fungus were compared after 30-day solid-state fermentation. Since Peniophora albobadia isolate LPSC 285 was the fungus that showed the highest degradative ability and the lowest free phenol levels in the residue transformed, we selected this fungus to monitor its effect on this residue after 30, 60, and 90 days of incubation. We analyzed mass loss of the residue caused by the fungus activity and its chemical changes using Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy. After 90 days of incubation, Peniophora albobadia isolate LPSC 285 reduced grape pomace mass by 20.48%, which was associated with degradation of polysaccharides and aromatic structures. We concluded that Peniophora albobadia LPSC # 285 isolate is a promising fungus to transform grape pomace from Vitis labrusca under solid-state fermentation conditions.

An overview of Antrodiella and related genera of Polyporales from the Neotropics.

The genus Antrodiella includes resupinate and pileate species of polypores with a dimitic hyphal system, small, globose to cylindrical basidiospores, absence of cystidia, tetrapolar mating system, and haplo-dikaryotic nuclear behavior. Recent studies, however, indicate that Antrodiella is highly polyphyletic, so many of its species have been transferred to other genera. This study reviews the systematic status and diversity of Antrodiella from the Neotropics based, in part, on studies of type specimens. Collections from Brazil were used for molecular analysis of nuc rDNA internal transcribed spacer region ITS1-5.8S-ITS2 (ITS), nuc 28S rDNA (28S), and portions of genes encoding translation elongation factor 1-α (tef1) and the second largest subunit of RNA polymerase II (rpb2). Eight genera are confirmed to include Neotropical species treated as Antrodiella in a broad sense: Aegis, Antrodiella s. str., Flaviporus, Metuloidea, Mycorrhaphium, Rickiopora, Trametopsis, and Trullella. Molecular data reveal the occurrence of two new species, described as Antrodiella trivialis, the only Neotropical species of Antrodiella s. str. known so far, and Mycorrhaphium hispidum. In addition, Antrodiella luteocontexta was found to nest in the genus Aegis, close to the Grifolaceae and Polyporaceae; therefore, the new combination Aegis luteocontexta is proposed. Comments on the eight Antrodiella-related genera as well as species with uncertain taxonomic position are provided, together with a key to their identification.

Taxonomy and species diversity of Ganoderma species in the Garden Route National Park of South Africa inferred from morphology and multilocus phylogenies.

Ganoderma is a cosmopolitan genus that encompasses species with cultural, economic, and pathogenic importance. Despite the importance of this genus, knowledge pertaining to the species diversity of Ganoderma in South Africa is limited. This study aimed at elucidating the identity and phylogenetic placements of Ganoderma samples obtained during a survey of wood-rotting fungi in the Garden Route National Park (GRNP) of South Africa, supplemented with isolates obtained from other localities across the country. Identification was achieved by means of multilocus phylogenetic inference combined with morphological evaluation. In total, eight distinct species of Ganoderma were recovered from different hosts and localities across the country. Of these, Ganoderma cf. cupreum and Ganoderma cf. resinaceum represent possible new records for South Africa. Two novel species are described, namely, G. eickeri. and G. knysnamense. Ganoderma eickeri, sp. nov., is characterized by a triquetrous and broadly attached basidiome, a sulcate or zonate yellowish brown to brown pilear surface, and ovoid to ellipsoid basidiospores. Ganoderma knysnamense is distinguished by an applanate to ungulate, sometimes convex, dimidiate to broadly attached basidiome, a chocolate-brown pilear surface covered with a hard woody-like crust and ellipsoid, broadly ellipsoid to ovoid basidiospores. The discovery of two new Ganoderma species in this study raises the known Ganoderma species in South Africa to 13.

A discussion on the genus Fomitiporella (Hymenochaetaceae, Hymenochaetales) and first record of F.americana from southern South America.

Fomitiporella has traditionally been delimited based on the gross morphology of the basidiomes, hyphal structure and basdiospores. Recently, phylogenetic studies supported the incorporation of an extensive number of species within the genus. Although most of its species are nested in the 'Phellinotus clade' (Hymenochaetaceae, Basidiomycota), genera such as Arambarria, Inocutis and Phellinotus were not included in previous analysis. To further our understanding of the genus, new sequences from 28S and ITS nuc rDNA genes were jointly analysed with a large selection of taxa in the 'Phellinotus clade', also with re-examination of morphological and ecological data. Results showed several lineages in what has hitherto been considered to represent Fomitiporella, indicating that the genus is paraphyletic as presently circumscribed. There is a well-supported Fomitiporella core group that includes the type species and nine other monophyletic lineages with high support, of which those representing Arambarria, Inocutis and Phellinotus are distinct from the Fomitiporella core group by macro and micromorphological traits and/or biogeographic distribution. Fomitiporellaamericana, a species described from SE USA, was found in the Patagonian forests of southern Argentina and Chile; it is the taxon responsible for the white heart-rot found on standing Austrocedruschilensis and one of the taxa decaying wooden tiles of historic churches in Chiloé Is., Chile.

Extensive characterization of the new genus Rickiopora (Polyporales).

Ceriporiopsis latemarginata and Antrodiella angulatopora are two Neotropical polypores that are very similar morphologically and are characterized by effused-reflexed basidiomes, large angular pores, small ellipsoid to ovoid basidiospores and a monomitic hyphal system with presence of thick-walled hyphae with infrequent clamps. In order to verify the evolutionary relations of C. latemarginata and to find its taxonomic placement, morphological, biological, and phylogenetic studies were carried out, as well as comparisons with Antrodiella s.s. and Ceriporiopsis s.s. Mono- and poly-sporic cultures were obtained and used for mating system and nuclear behaviour studies, as well as for DNA sequence analyses of the internal transcribed spacer and large subunit of ribosomal RNA gene, translation elongation factor 1-alpha gene and RNA polymerase II second largest subunit-like gene. Type specimens of C. latemarginata and A. angulatopora were morphologically examined and their synonymy was confirmed. The results obtained support the description of a new polypore genus Rickiopora in the residual polyporoid clade characterized by a bipolar mating system, an astatocoenocytic nuclear behaviour, and a monomitic hyphal system that display a metachromatic reaction in cresyl blue.

New species of Tomentella (Thelephorales) from the Patagonian Andes forests.

The genus Tomentella forms abundant ectomycorrhizae in coniferous and deciduous forests worldwide. Molecular identification of root tips suggests undescribed species in the Nothofagus forests of Patagonia, Argentina. Tomentella tenuissima, T. pulvinulata and T. patagonica are described here as new to science based on morphological and molecular analyses. Their host range is addressed using available soil sequences. The identity of previous records of T. galzinii and T. radiosa are discussed with morphological and molecular evidence.

The phylogenetic position of poroid Hymenochaetaceae (Hymenochaetales, Basidiomycota) from Patagonia, Argentina.

Six poroid Hymenochaetaceae from Patagonia, Argentina, were studied phylogenetically with nuc rDNA internal transcribed spacer (ITS) and partial 28S rDNA sequences, together with morphological data. Two new genera and a new species are introduced as well as two new combinations proposed. Arambarria destruens gen. et sp. nov. is proposed for a taxon fruiting on fallen or standing, dead Diostea juncea and Lomatia hirsuta and previously recorded erroneously as Inocutis jamaicensis; it is distinguished by annual, effused to effused-reflexed basidiomes forming pilei, a monomitic hyphal system, thick-walled and yellowish basidiospores (brownish chestnut in potassium hydroxide solution), lack of a granular core in the context and lack of setoid elements. Nothophellinus gen. nov. is proposed to accommodate Phellinus andinopatagonicus, the main white wood-rotting polypore of standing Nothofagus pumilio and also an important wood-decayer of other Nothofagus species from southern Argentina and Chile. It is morphologically similar to Phellopilus (type species P. nigrolimitatus) but differs by lacking setae. The new combinations Pseudoinonotus crustosus and Phellinopsis andina are proposed for Inonotus crustosus and Phellinus andinus, respectively. Phellinus livescens, which decays the sapwood of several standing Nothofagus species, is closely related to Phellinus uncisetus, a Neotropical species related to Fomitiporia; for the time being P. livescens is retained in Phellinus sensu lato. An unidentified taxon responsible for a white heart-rot in living Austrocedrus chilensis grouped with Phellinus caryophyllii and Fulvifomes inermis, but its generic affinities remain ambiguous. Transmission electron microscopy studies confirm this unidentified taxon has an imperforate parenthesome, which is typical of the Hymenochaetaceae.

Phylogenetic relationships of Hydnum peroxydatum support the synonymy of Hydnochaete with Hymenochaete (Hymenochaetaceae, Agaricomycetes).

A combined dataset of rDNA ITS and LSU sequences was used to infer the phylogenetic relationships of Hydnochaete peroxydata (≡ Hydnum peroxydatum), the type species of Hydnochaete. The species was retrieved nested within the Hymenochaete s. str. clade; therefore Hydnochaete is regarded as a synonym of Hymenochaete and the new combination Hymenochaete peroxydata is proposed.

Nuclear behavior of the mycelium and the phylogeny of Polypores (Basidiomycota).

This is a review of the available knowledge on nuclear behavior of the mycelium within polypore genera (Agaricomycetes, Basidiomycota). Information on 68 genera showed that nuclear behavior is a distinct and consistent feature at genus level and can be coupled with phylogenetic differentiation. The sole exception was found in Polyporus, where different species with normal, heterocytic and astatocoenocytic nuclear behaviors were found. Of the 68 genera treated 41 (60.3%) displayed a normal nuclear behavior, nine (13.2%) were heterocytic, nine (13.2%) were astatocoenocytic and another eight (11.8%) were holocoenocytic. In 95% of the genera a unique compatibility system was found, with the exceptions of Antrodia, which includes both homothallic and bipolar species all associated with a normal nuclear behavior, and Spongipellis, in which bipolar and tetrapolar species are found, all displaying an astatocoenocytic nuclear behavior. Normal and heterocytic nuclear behaviors were associated mostly with tetrapolarity, astatocoenocity was associated mostly with bipolarity, and holocoenocity was associated with either bipolarity or purported homothallism. The combination of nuclear behavior with mating system and brown or white rot capability appeared as a strong feature characterizing and distinguishing the genera of polypores, each combination being valuable to differentiate between apparently related genera, as is supported by phylogenetic studies. Several examples are presented to support this idea, as well as the cases of species that are problematic to this concept. Poroid genera of Hymenochaetaceae were treated apart because of the lack of knowledge regarding their nuclear behavior. In addition new information on the sexuality and/or nuclear behavior of 15 polyporoid taxa is given.

Multiple cryptic species with divergent substrate affinities in the Serpula himantioides species complex.

Serpula himantioides is a widespread saprotrophic morphospecies mainly colonising coniferous wood in nature, but it appears frequently in buildings as well. From an earlier study, it is known that at least three divergent lineages occur within the S. himantioides species complex. In this study, a broader sample of S. himantioides isolates has been analysed by multi-locus sequencing, including new isolates from Asia, North and South America. Altogether five phylogenetical species (PS1-5) were detected, all recognised across independent gene phylogenies. A new southern South American phylogenetic species (PS1) was found, representing an early diverging lineage within the S. himantioides species complex. The two closely related PS2 and PS3 lineages included isolates from North America only, and PS4 was also dominated by North American isolates. Most of the investigated isolates (76%) clustered into PS5, a lineage that has been found on most continents, including North America. Overall, little phylogeographical structure was found in PS5, indicating frequent and recent long-distance dispersal events within this widespread lineage. Our analyses indicate that South and North America are the centres of divergence for the S. himantioides species complex. Some of the lineages seem adapted to various substrates, but PS5 is able to decay a wide array of angiosperms and gymnosperms, which may have facilitated the spread of this lineage throughout the world.