Influence of Drying Temperatures on Color Variation, Phenolic Compounds and Multi-Elemental Composition of Some Culinary- Medicinal Mushrooms.

Although mushrooms are widely used for nutraceutical purposes, post-harvest storage is extremely crucial to avoid degradation and quality reduction in fresh mushrooms. Drying treatments are commonly applied in the mushroom industry to extend shelf life. Drying may cause instability of food quality and antioxidant parameters due to unsuitable drying temperatures. Therefore, in this research a common set of temperatures typically used by mushroom growers was applied (50°C, 60°C, 70°C) to Ganoderma lucidum, Lignosus rhinocerus, Auricularia auricula-judae, and Schizophyllum commune to analyze color changes and concentration of elements and phenolic compounds. Mushrooms were chosen based on commonly cultivated species among growers. L. rhinocerus dried at 70°C indicated significantly lower L* (78.90) compared to control (89.94). Element retention in each sample differed depending on the species. The amount of calcium was significantly higher in L. rhinocerus (11,893 mg/kg) and A. auricula-judae (10,941.81 mg/kg) when dried at 60°C. Drying at 70°C resulted in significantly higher magnesium for Sch. commune (13,054.38 mg/kg) and A. auricula-judae (80,56.92 mg/kg). Higher levels of iron and manganese were observed in Sch. commune dried at 70°C (216.54 and 10.02 mg/kg, respectively). Gallic acid had significantly higher retention at 50°C for A. auricula-judae and G. lucidum. Meanwhile, L. rhinocerus and Sch. commune showed significantly higher gallic acid at 60°C. It is evident from these results that temperature does affect the food quality and elemental parameters during the drying process for each mushroom.

Overproduction of Xanthophyll Pigment in Flavobacterium sp. JSWR-1 under Optimized Culture Conditions.

Flavobacterium can synthesize xanthophyll, particularly the pigment zeaxanthin, which has significant economic value in nutrition and pharmaceuticals. Recently, the use of carotenoid biosynthesis by bacteria and yeast fermentation technology has shown to be very efficient and offers significant advantages in large-scale production, cost-effectiveness, and safety. In the present study, JSWR-1 strain capable of producing xanthophyll pigment was isolated from a freshwater reservoir in Wanju-gun, Republic of Korea. Based on the morphological, physiological, and molecular characteristics, JSWR-1 classified as belonging to the Flavobacterium species. The bacterium is strictly aerobic, Gram-negative, rod-shaped, and psychrophilic. The completed genome sequence of the strain Flavobacterium sp. JSWR-1 is predicted to be a single circular 3,425,829-bp chromosome with a G+C content of 35.2% and 2,941 protein-coding genes. The optimization of carotenoid production was achieved by small-scale cultivation, resulting in zeaxanthin being identified as the predominant carotenoid pigment. The enhancement of zeaxanthin biosynthesis by applying different light-irradiation, variations in pH and temperature, and adding carbon and nitrogen supplies to the growth medium. A significant increase in intracellular zeaxanthin concentrations was also recorded during fed-batch fermentation achieving a maximum of 16.69 ± 0.71 mg/l, corresponding to a product yield of 4.05 ± 0.15 mg zeaxanthin per gram cell dry weight. Batch and fed-batch culture extracts exhibit significant antioxidant activity. The results demonstrated that the JSWR-1 strain can potentially serve as a source for zeaxanthin biosynthesis.

A New Approach Using the SYBR Green-Based Real-Time PCR Method for Detection of Soft Rot Pectobacterium odoriferum Associated with Kimchi Cabbage.

Pectobacterium odoriferum is the primary causative agent in Kimchi cabbage soft-rot diseases. The pathogenic bacteria Pectobacterium genera are responsible for significant yield losses in crops. However, P. odoriferum shares a vast range of hosts with P. carotovorum, P. versatile, and P. brasiliense, and has similar biochemical, phenotypic, and genetic characteristics to these species. Therefore, it is essential to develop a P. odoriferum- specific diagnostic method for soft-rot disease because of the complicated diagnostic process and management as described above. Therefore, in this study, to select P. odoriferum-specific genes, species-specific genes were selected using the data of the P. odoriferum JK2.1 whole genome and similar bacterial species registered with NCBI. Thereafter, the specificity of the selected gene was tested through blast analysis. We identified novel species-specific genes to detect and quantify targeted P. odoriferum and designed specific primer sets targeting HAD family hydrolases. It was confirmed that the selected primer set formed a specific amplicon of 360 bp only in the DNA of P. odoriferum using 29 Pectobacterium species and related species. Furthermore, the population density of P. odoriferum can be estimated without genomic DNA extraction through SYBR Green-based real-time quantitative PCR using a primer set in plants. As a result, the newly developed diagnostic method enables rapid and accurate diagnosis and continuous monitoring of soft-rot disease in Kimchi cabbage without additional procedures from the plant tissue.

Application of Lactic Acid Bacteria (LAB) in Sustainable Agriculture: Advantages and Limitations.

Lactic acid bacteria (LAB) are significant groups of probiotic organisms in fermented food and are generally considered safe. LAB regulate soil organic matter and the biochemical cycle, detoxify hazardous chemicals, and enhance plant health. They are found in decomposing plants, traditional fermented milk products, and normal human gastrointestinal and vaginal flora. Exploring LAB identified in unknown niches may lead to isolating unique species. However, their classification is quite complex, and they are adapted to high sugar concentrations and acidic environments. LAB strains are considered promising candidates for sustainable agriculture, and they promote soil health and fertility. Therefore, they have received much attention regarding sustainable agriculture. LAB metabolites promote plant growth and stimulate shoot and root growth. As fertilizers, LAB can promote biodegradation, accelerate the soil organic content, and produce organic acid and bacteriocin metabolites. However, LAB show an antagonistic effect against phytopathogens, inhibiting fungal and bacterial populations in the rhizosphere and phyllosphere. Several studies have proposed the LAB bioremediation efficiency and detoxification of heavy metals and mycotoxins. However, LAB genetic manipulation and metabolic engineered tools provide efficient cell factories tailor-made to produce beneficial industrial and agro-products. This review discusses lactic acid bacteria advantages and limitations in sustainable agricultural development.

Mycofabrication of Mycelium-Based Leather from Brown-Rot Fungi.

Sustainable substitutes for leather can be made from mushroom mycelium, which is an environmentally friendly alternative to animal and synthetic leather. Mycelium-based leather is derived from Polyporales, in which lignocellulosic material is used as the substrate. The plasticizing and crosslinking of mycelial mats with various reagents might affect the leather properties and mycelial architecture. This study investigated the physicochemical and mechanical properties of mycelium-based leather (MBL) samples, including the hygroscopic nature, thermal stability, cell wall chemistry, density, micromorphology, tensile strength, elongation rate, and Young's modulus. Micromorphological observations confirmed the mycelial networks and their binding performance, verifying their efficacy as a substitute leather. The most significant effects were observed after treatment with 20% polyethylene glycol, which resulted in an increase in Young's modulus and tensile strength. Furthermore, the samples generally exhibited a high density (1.35, 1.46 g/cm3) and tensile strength (7.21 ± 0.93, 8.49 ± 0.90 MPa), resembling leather. The tear strength reached as low as 0.5-0.8 N/mm. However, the tensile and tear strength may be affected by leather processing and the tuning of mycelial growth. Nevertheless, high-density mycelia are shown to be suitable for the production of MBL, while mycofabrication and strain selection are sustainable for novel industrial applications of MBL.

Interspecific hybridization between Ganoderma lingzhi and G. applanatum through protoplast fusion.

Interspecific hybridization between Ganoderma lingzhi and G. applanatum was attempted through polyethylene glycol (PEG) induced fusion technique. The protoplast isolation procedure was simplified, and we obtained a significant number of protoplasts from both Ganoderma species. The number of protoplasts obtained was 5.27 ± 0.31 × 107/mL in G. lingzhi and 5.57 ± 0.49 × 106/mL in G. applanatum. Osmotic stabilizer NaCl (0.4 M) at pH 5.8 and enzymolysis time 3.5 h have supported high frequency of protoplast regeneration. G. lingzhi and G. applanatum regeneration frequency was 1.73 ± 0.04% and 0.23 ± 0.02%, respectively. 40% of PEG induced high number of protoplast fusion the regeneration frequency was 0.09% on a minimal medium. Two hundred fifty-two fusant colonies were isolated from the following four individual experiments. Among them, ten fusants showed the mycelial morphological difference compared to their parents and other fusant isolates. The fruiting body could be generated on oak sawdust and wheat bran substrate, and a few of them showed recombined morphology of the parental strains. The highest yield and biological efficacy (BE) were recorded in GF248, while least in GF244. The hybridity of the fusant was established based on mycelia, fruiting morphology, and PCR fingerprinting. ISSR and RAPD profile analysis of ten fusants and parents depicted that fusants contained polymorphic bands, which specified the rearrangement and deletion of DNA in the fusants. A Dendrogram was constructed based on the RAPD profile, and the clustering data exhibited two major clusters: cluster I included the G. lingzhi and Cluster II, including the G. applanatum and fusant lines. Total polysaccharide (α, ß and total glucan) content was compared with fusants and parental strains. The present study highlighted the efficient methods for protoplast isolation from Ganoderma species. PEG-induced fusants showed high polymorphic frequency index, while the phenotypic characters showed high similarity to G. applanatum. A significant difference was observed in the mushroom yield and its total polysaccharide between the fusants and parental strains.

Cultivation and Nutritional Value of Prominent Pleurotus spp.: An Overview.

Pleurotus species are commercially essential mushrooms and widely cultivated throughout the world. The production of Pleurotus mushrooms alone accounts for around 25% of that total cultivated mushrooms globally. In America and Europe, Pleurotus species are considered specialty mushrooms, whereas, in Korea, their cultivation is economically profitable, and it is one of the highly consumed species. Pleurotus species are predominantly found in tropical forests and often grow on fallen branches, dead and decaying tree stumps, and wet logs. Biographical studies have shown that the Pleurotus genus is among the more conspicuous fungi that induce wood decay in terrestrial ecosystems worldwide due to its formidable lignin-modifying enzymes, including laccase and versatile peroxidases. Pleurotus species can be grown easily due to their fast colonization nature on diversified agro-substrates and their biological efficiency 100%. Pleurotus mushrooms are rich in proteins, dietary fiber, essential amino acids, carbohydrates, water-soluble vitamins, and minerals. These mushrooms are abundant in functional bioactive molecules, though to influence health. Pleurotus mushrooms are finding unique applications as flavoring, aroma, and excellent preservation quality. Apart from its unique applications, Pleurotus mushrooms have a unique status delicacy with high nutritional and medicinal values. The present review provides an insight into the cultivation of Pleurotus spp. using different agro-waste as growth substances paying attention to their effects on the growth and chemical composition.

Anti-viral activity of culinary and medicinal mushroom extracts against dengue virus serotype 2: an in-vitro study.

BACKGROUND: Dengue is a mosquito-borne viral infection that has become a major public health concern worldwide. Presently, there is no specific vaccine or treatment available for dengue viral infection. METHODS: Lignosus rhinocerotis, Pleurotus giganteus, Hericium erinaceus, Schizophyllum commune and Ganoderma lucidium were selected for evaluation of their in-vitro anti-dengue virus serotype 2 (DENV-2) activities. Hot aqueous extracts (HAEs), ethanol extracts (EEs), hexane soluble extracts (HSEs), ethyl acetate soluble extracts (ESEs) and aqueous soluble extracts (ASEs) were prepared from the selected mushrooms. The cytotoxic effects of the extracts were evaluated by the MTT assay. The anti-DENV-2 activities of the extracts were evaluated in three different assays: simultaneous, attachment and penetration assays were perfomed using plaque reduction assays and RT-qPCR assays. The effect of the addition time on viral replication was assessed by the time of addition assay, and a virucidal assay was carried out to evaluate the direct effect of each mushroom extract on DENV-2. The chemical composition of glucans, and the protein and phenolic acid contents in the extracts were estimated. RESULTS: We found that the HAEs and ASEs of L. rhinocerotis, P. giganteus, H. erinaceus and S. commune were the least toxic to Vero cells and showed very prominent anti-DENV2 activity. The 50% inhibitory concentration (IC50) values of the ASEs ranged between 399.2-637.9 µg/ml, while for the HAEs the range was 312.9-680.6 µg/ml during simultaneous treatment. Significant anti-dengue activity was also detected in the penetration assay of ASEs (IC50: 226.3-315.4 µg/ml) and HAEs (IC50: 943.1-2080.2 µg/ml). Similarly, we observed a marked reduction in the expression levels of the ENV and NS5 genes in the simultaneous and penetration assays of the ASEs and HAEs. Time-of-addition experiments showed that the highest percent of anti-DENV2 activity was observed when the mushroom extracts were added immediately after virus adsorption. None of the extracts exhibited virucidal effect. Chemical composition analysis showed that the major components in the mushroom HAEs and ASEs were glucan (beta D-glucan) and proteins, however, there was no significant correlation between the anti-dengue activity and the concentration of glucans and proteins. CONCLUSION: These findings demonstrated the potential of mushroom extracts as anti-dengue therapeutic agents with less toxic effects.

Surface Decoration of Selenium Nanoparticles by Proteins from the Culinary-Medicinal Shiitake Mushroom, Lentinus edodes (Agaricomycetes), for Enhanced Fibrinolytic Activity.

Lentinus edodes (shiitake mushroom) has exhibited fibrinolytic activity. We synthesized and characterized selenium nanoparticles (SeNPs) using protein precipitated from the mushroom. We also investigated the fibrinolytic activity of the SeNPs. The proteins from a crude extract of L. edodes were recovered through the use of aqueous 2-phase separation, and these we used as the capping agent in SeNP biosynthesis. We characterized the SeNPs using UV-visible spectrophotometry, field emission scanning electron microscopy (FESEM), energy dispersive X-ray (EDX), transmission electron microscopy (TEM), particle size distribution analysis, and Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FT-IR). The fibrinolytic capability of the SeNPs was tested through an in vitro fibrin plate assay. The UV-visible spectra showed maximal absorbance at 220 nm. FESEM images showed that the SeNPs were dispersed and did not clump. The TEM images revealed a spherical shape and average size of the SeNPs. The particle size distribution analysis confirmed the mean size of the SeNPs at 64.53 nm. A strong signal for the presence of selenium was observed in the EDX analysis. The FT-IR spectrum revealed the involvement of protein functional groups in the reduction of sel-enite. Overall, the SeNPs capped with protein from shiitake mushroom were effective as an in vitro fibrinolytic agent.

Functional Properties of Partially Characterized Polysaccharide from the Medicinal Mushroom Ganoderma neo-japonicum (Agaricomycetes).

This study was conducted to evaluate the mycochemical composition and antiglycemic and antioxidant activities of Ganoderma neo-japonicum hot aqueous extracts, prepared at different boiling durations, and polysaccharides isolated from them. Ground basidiocarps of G. neo-japonicum were double-boiled at 100°C for 0.5, 3, or 4 hours, and the antiglycemic activity was assessed by α-amylase and α-glucosidase enzyme inhibition assays. The antioxidant capacity of the crude hot aqueous extracts (AE-1, AE-2, AE-3) was assessed by DPPH and ABTS radical scavenging and ferric-reducing antioxidant power assays. The total phenolics, protein, and sugar in the crude extracts were also determined. The hot aqueous extract (AE-3) containing a significant amount of total sugar and having enhanced antiglycemic and antioxidant activities was selected for polysaccharide isolation. The isolated crude polysaccharide was separated and purified using diethylaminoethyl-cellulose-52 and Sepharose 6B column chromatography. Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy studies of the purified polysaccharide fraction (PF) showed the presence of typical bands corresponding to polysaccharides. The estimated ß-glucan concentration in the PF was 39.26%. In general, the PF exhibited significantly lower antioxidant activity than AE-3. Nevertheless, its potency in inhibiting carbohydratehydrolyzing enzymes may have potential in the management of diabetes mellitus.

Haematological, biochemical and histopathological aspects of Hericium erinaceus ingestion in a rodent model: A sub-chronic toxicological assessment.

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE: Hericium erinaceus is a culinary-medicinal mushroom and has a long history of usage in traditional Chinese medicine as a tonic for stomach disorders, ulcers and gastrointestinal ailments. AIM OF THE STUDY: The present investigation was aimed to evaluate the potential toxic effects of the aqueous extract from the fruiting bodies of H. erinaceus in rats by a sub-chronic oral toxicity study. MATERIALS AND METHODS: In this sub-chronic toxicity study, rats were orally administered with the aqueous extract of H. erinaceus (HEAE) at doses of 250, 500 and 1000mg/kg body weight (b.w.) for 90 days. Body weights were recorded on a weekly basis and general behavioural changes were observed. The blood samples were subjected to haematological, biochemical, serum electrolyte, and antioxidant enzyme estimations. The rats were sacrificed and organs were processed and examined for histopathological changes. RESULTS: No mortality or morbidity was observed in all the treated and control rats. The results showed that the oral administration of HEAE daily at three different doses for 90 days had no adverse effect on the general behaviour, body weight, haematology, clinical biochemistry, and relative organ weights. Histopathological examination at the end of the study showed normal architecture except for few non-treatment related histopathological changes observed in liver, heart and spleen. CONCLUSION: The results of this sub-chronic toxicity study provides evidence that oral administration of HEAE is safe up to 1000mg/kg and H. erinaceus consumption is relatively non-toxic.

Aqueous extract of Senecio candicans DC induce liver and kidney damage in a sub-chronic oral toxicity study in Wistar rats.

Senecio candicans DC. (Asteraceae) is used as a remedy for gastric ulcer and stomach pain in the Nilgiris, district, Tamil Nadu. The present investigation was carried out to evaluate the sub-chronic toxicity of an aqueous extract of Senecio candicans (AESC) plant in Wistar albino rats. The study was conducted in consideration of the OECD 408 study design (Repeated Dose 90-Day Oral Toxicity Study in Rodents) and the extract was administered via gavage at doses of 250, 500 or 750 mg/kg body weight per day for 90-days. Hematological, biochemical parameters were determined on days 0, 30, 60 and 90 of administration. Animals were euthanized after 90 d treatment and its liver and kidney sections were taken for histological study. The results of sub-chronic study showed significant increase (P < 0.05) in serum uric acid, creatinine, aspartate transaminase (AST) and alanine transaminase (ALP) levels. Histological examination of liver showed mild mononuclear infiltration in the portal trait, enlarged nucleus around the central vein and mild loss of hepatocyte architecture in rats treated with 750 mg/kg of AESC. Histological examination of kidney showed focal interstitial fibrosis, crowding of glomeruli and mild hydropic change with hypercellular glomeruli in rats treated with 750 mg/kg of AESC. However, no remarkable histoarchitectural change in hepatocytes and glomeruli were observed in rats treated with lower concentrations (250 and 500 mg/kg b.w.) of AESC compared to control group animals. The no-observed adverse effect level (NOAEL) of AESC in the present study was 500 mg/kg b.w. Signs of toxic effects are evident from the current study. Although AESC contains low concentrations of PA, findings from this study suggest that regular consumers of herbal remedies derived from this plant may develop kidney and liver toxicity. Further studies on the isolation and characterization of PAs are necessary to determine the safe dose level of the extract for therapeutic use in traditional medicine.

Identification and in vitro Evaluation of Lipids from Sclerotia of Lignosus rhinocerotis for Antioxidant and Anti-neuroinflammatory Activities.

Lignosus rhinocerotis (Cooke) Ryvarden (Tiger milk mushroom) is traditionally used to treat inflammation triggered symptoms and illnesses such as cough, fever and asthma. The present study evaluated the in vitro antioxidant, cytotoxic and anti-neuroinflammatory activities of the extract and fractions of selerotia powder of L. rhinocerotis on brain microglial (BV2) cells. The ethyl acetate fraction had a total phenolic content of 0.30 ± 0.11 mg GAE/g. This fraction had ferric reducing capacity of 61.8 ± 1.8 mg FSE/g, ABTS·+ scavenging activity of 36.8 ± 1.8 mg TE/g and DPPH free radical scavenging activity of 21.8% ± 0.7. At doses ranging from 0.1 µg/mL - 100 µg/mL, the extract and fractions were not cytotoxic to BV2 cells. At 100 µg/mL, the crude hydroethanolic extract and the ethyl acetate fraction elicited the highest nitric oxide reduction activities of 68.7% and 58.2%, respectively. Linoleic and oleic acids were the major lipid constituents in the ethyl acetate fraction based on FID and GC-MS analysis. Linoleic acid reduced nitric oxide production and down regulated the expression of neuroinflammatory iNOS and COX2 genes in BV2 cells.

Neurite outgrowth stimulatory effects of myco synthesized AuNPs from Hericium erinaceus (Bull.: Fr.) Pers. on pheochromocytoma (PC-12) cells.

BACKGROUND: Hericium erinaceus has been reported to have a wide range of medicinal properties such as stimulation of neurite outgrowth, promotion of functional recovery of axonotmetic peroneal nerve injury, antioxidant, antihypertensive, and antidiabetic properties. In recent years, the green synthesis of gold nanoparticles (AuNPs) has attracted intense interest due to the potential use in biomedical applications. The aim of this study was to investigate the effects of AuNPs from aqueous extract of H. erinaceus on neurite outgrowth of rat pheochromocytoma (PC-12) cells. METHODS: The formation of AuNPs was characterized by UV-visible spectrum, energy dispersive X-ray (EDX), field-emission scanning electron microscope (FESEM), transmission electron microscopy (TEM), particle size distribution, and Fourier transform-infrared spectroscopy (FTIR). Furthermore, the neurite extension study of synthesized AuNPs was evaluated by in vitro assay. RESULTS: The AuNPs exhibited maximum absorbance between 510 and 600 nm in UV-visible spectrum. FESEM and TEM images showed the existence of nanoparticles with sizes of 20-40 nm. FTIR measurements were carried out to identify the possible biomolecules responsible for capping and efficient stabilization of the nanoparticles. The purity and the crystalline properties were confirmed by EDX diffraction analysis, which showed strong signals with energy peaks in the range of 2-2.4 keV, indicating the existence of gold atoms. The synthesized AuNPs showed significant neurite extension on PC-12 cells. Nerve growth factor 50 ng/mL was used as a positive control. Treatment with different concentrations (nanograms) of AuNPs resulted in neuronal differentiation and neuronal elongation. AuNPs induced maximum neurite outgrowth of 13% at 600 ng/mL concentration. CONCLUSION: In this study, the AuNPs synthesis was achieved by a simple, low-cost, and rapid bioreduction approach. AuNPs were shown to have potential neuronal differentiation and stimulated neurite outgrowth. The water-soluble bioconstituents could be responsible for the neuroactivity. This is the first report for the biosynthesis of AuNPs using the hot aqueous extract of H. erinaceus.

Ganoderma neo-japonicum Imazeki revisited: Domestication study and antioxidant properties of its basidiocarps and mycelia.

Mushroom cultivation benefits humankind as it deliberately encourages wild mushrooms to be commercially propagated while recycling agricultural wastes. Ganoderma neo-japonicum is a rare polypore mushroom found growing on decaying Schizostachyum brachycladium (a tropical bamboo) clumps in Malaysia. The Malaysian indigenous tribes including the Temuans and Temiars use the basidiocarps of G. neo-japonicum to treat various ailments including diabetes. In this study, the domestication of G. neo-japonicum in artificial logs of different agricultural residues was investigated. Sawdust promoted the mycelia spawn colonisation in the shortest period of 38 ± 0.5 days. However, only sawdust and bamboo dust supported the primodia formation. Complex medium supported mycelium growth in submerged cultures and 27.11 ± 0.43 g/L of mycelia was obtained after 2 weeks of cultivation at 28 °C and 200 rpm. Antioxidant potential in mushroom may be influenced by different cultivation and extraction methods. The different extracts from the wild and cultivated basidiocarps as well as mycelia were then tested for their antioxidant properties. Aqueous and ethanol extracts of mycelia and basidiocarps tested had varying levels of antioxidant activities. To conclude, domestication of wild G. neo-japonicum using agroresidues may ensure a continuous supply of G. neo-japonicum for its medicinal use while ensuring the conservation of this rare species.

Ergosterol of Cordyceps militaris Attenuates LPS Induced Inflammation in BV2 Microglia Cells.

Different solvent extracts of Cordyceps militaris stroma powder were tested for cell viability and inhibition of nitric oxide (NO) production in lipopolysaccharide (LPS) triggered BV2 microglia cells. Chemical investigation of the ethyl acetate fraction resulted in an enriched ergosterol sub-fraction CE3. The BV2 cells showed no cytotoxic effects when treated with the ethyl acetate fraction and sub-fraction CE3 at concentrations of 0.1 µg/mL - 100 µg/mL compared with the control. At 10 µg/mL, the ethyl acetate fraction and sub-fraction CE3 had the highest reduction of 48.0% and 44.7% of nitric oxide production, respectively. The major compound in sub-fraction CE3 was ergosterol, identified by GCMS, and the purity was checked by HPLC. Further, the reduction of nitric oxide in LPS triggered BV2 cells was about three fold higher when compared with the control commercial ergosterol.

Lion's Mane, Hericium erinaceus and Tiger Milk, Lignosus rhinocerotis (Higher Basidiomycetes) Medicinal Mushrooms Stimulate Neurite Outgrowth in Dissociated Cells of Brain, Spinal Cord, and Retina: An In Vitro Study.

Neurodegenerative disease is defined as a deterioration of the nervous system in the intellectual and cognitive capabilities. Statistics show that more than 80-90 million individuals age 65 and above in 2050 may be affected by neurodegenerative conditions like Alzheimer's and Parkinson's disease. Studies have shown that out of 2000 different types of edible and/or medicinal mushrooms, only a few countable mushrooms have been selected until now for neurohealth activity. Hericium erinaceus is one of the well-established medicinal mushrooms for neuronal health. It has been documented for its regenerative capability in peripheral nerve. Another mushroom used as traditional medicine is Lignosus rhinocerotis, which has been used for various illnesses. It has been documented for its neurite outgrowth potential in PC12 cells. Based on the regenerative capabilities of both the mushrooms, priority was given to select them for our study. The aim of this study was to investigate the potential of H. erinaceus and L. rhinocerotis to stimulate neurite outgrowth in dissociated cells of brain, spinal cord, and retina from chick embryo when compared to brain derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF). Neurite outgrowth activity was confirmed by the immu-nofluorescence method in all tissue samples. Treatment with different concentrations of extracts resulted in neuronal differentiation and neuronal elongation. H. erinaceus extract at 50 µg/mL triggered neurite outgrowth at 20.47%, 22.47%, and 21.70% in brain, spinal cord, and retinal cells. L. rhinocerotis sclerotium extract at 50 µg/mL induced maximum neurite outgrowth of 20.77% and 24.73% in brain and spinal cord, whereas 20.77% of neurite outgrowth was observed in retinal cells at 25 µg/mL, respectively.

Gastroprotective Effects of Lion's Mane Mushroom Hericium erinaceus (Bull.:Fr.) Pers. (Aphyllophoromycetideae) Extract against Ethanol-Induced Ulcer in Rats.

Hericium erinaceus is a famous tonic in oriental medicine. The gastroprotective effects of aqueous extract of H. erinaceus against ethanol-induced ulcers in Sprague Dawley rats were investigated. The possible involvements of lipid peroxidation, superoxide dismutase, and catalase were also investigated. Acute toxicity study was performed. The effects of aqueous extract of H. erinaceus on the ulcer areas, ulcer inhibition, gastric wall mucus, gross and histological gastric lesions, antioxidant levels, and malondialdehyde (MDA) contents were evaluated in ethanol-induced ulcer in vivo. In acute toxicity study, a high dose of 5 g/kg did not manifest any toxicological signs in rats. The extract promoted ulcer protection as ascertained by a significant reduction of the ulcer area. Furthermore, it exhibited a significant protection activity against gastric mucosal injury by preventing the depletion of antioxidant enzymes. The level of MDA was also limited in rat stomach tissues when compared with the ulcer control group. Immunohistochemistry showed upregulation of HSP70 protein and downregulation of BAX protein in rats pretreated with the extract. The aqueous extract of H. erinaceus protected gastric mucosa in our in vivo model. It is speculated that the bioactive compounds present in the extract may play a major role in gastroprotective activity.

Green synthesis of silver nanoparticles using Ganoderma neo-japonicum Imazeki: a potential cytotoxic agent against breast cancer cells.

BACKGROUND: Silver nanoparticles (AgNPs) are an important class of nanomaterial for a wide range of industrial and biomedical applications. AgNPs have been used as antimicrobial and disinfectant agents due their detrimental effect on target cells. The aim of our study was to determine the cytotoxic effects of biologically synthesized AgNPs using hot aqueous extracts of the mycelia of Ganoderma neo-japonicum Imazeki on MDA-MB-231 human breast cancer cells. METHODS: We developed a green method for the synthesis of water-soluble AgNPs by treating silver ions with hot aqueous extract of the mycelia of G. neo-japonicum. The formation of AgNPs was characterized by ultraviolet-visible absorption spectroscopy, X-ray diffraction, dynamic light scattering, and transmission electron microscopy. Furthermore, the toxicity of synthesized AgNPs was evaluated using a series of assays: such as cell viability, lactate dehydrogenase leakage, reactive oxygen species generation, caspase 3, DNA laddering, and terminal deoxynucleotidyl transferase deoxyuridine triphosphate nick-end labeling in human breast cancer cells (MDA-MB-231). RESULTS: The ultraviolet-visible absorption spectroscopy results showed a strong resonance centered on the surface of AgNPs at 420 nm. The X-ray diffraction analysis confirmed that the synthesized AgNPs were single-crystalline, corresponding with the result of transmission electron microscopy. Treatment of MDA-MB-231 breast cancer cells with various concentrations of AgNPs (1-10 µg/mL) for 24 hours revealed that AgNPs could inhibit cell viability and induce membrane leakage in a dose-dependent manner. Cells exposed to AgNPs showed increased reactive oxygen species and hydroxyl radical production. Furthermore, the apoptotic effects of AgNPs were confirmed by activation of caspase 3 and DNA nuclear fragmentation. CONCLUSION: The results indicate that AgNPs possess cytotoxic effects with apoptotic features and suggest that the reactive oxygen species generated by AgNPs have a significant role in apoptosis. The present findings suggest that AgNPs could contribute to the development of a suitable anticancer drug, which may lead to the development of a novel nanomedicine for the treatment of cancers.